This second chapter of the study provides a review of the research relevant literature of variables and each variable of definitions and lastly provides the relationship between each variable. The first section of this chapter discusses each variable definition, then discuss a theory of T&D. Lastly, it explains the relationship between each of the variables.
Training and Development Definition of Training and Development
T&D are a planned process of the organization and it’s missing something may be overall purpose and it helps to improve the performance of employees, skills, knowledge, effectiveness, and attitude of employees (Belhaj, 2000; Buckley & Caple, 2009; Ensour & Kharabsheh, 2015).
Armstrong and Taylor (2014) defined that, the T&D activities are to help employees earn specific skills and knowledge and also to improve the performance of employees, a significant impact for the employee’s development and personal career. Swanson (1995) described that T&D operation is systematically process of developing, to develop the employees “working knowledge” and
“expertise” and to improving the job condition of employees. As reported by Sadler-Smith (2009) that “training is undoubtedly of value to individuals and organizations” and Akdere (2003) defined T&D process good opportunities for employees to improve self-awareness and to improve their performance of tasks. Training not only improves technical and not-technical skills of employees but it also can be used to increase employees’ commitment to the organization (Owoyemi, Oyelere, Elegbede, & Gbajumo-Sheriff, 2011). Moreover, T&D practices are very important for individuals and can be related to employees’ attitudes, behaviors, performance and also organizational commitment.
When organizations offer adequate opportunities of development for employees it has increase employees’ level of personal satisfaction (García-Bernal, Gargallo-Castel, Marzo-Navarro, & Rivera-Torres, 2005). Employees who receive more training have higher satisfaction than those receive training (Gazioglu & Tansel, 2006). Moreover, the T&D process is a significantly important role for the Human Resource Department and the organization also its impact to influence job satisfaction.
8 Table 2.1.
Definitions of Training and Development
Dimensions of Training and Development
This variable includes three dimensions and this section explains those three dimensions.
First, training motivation, second perceived co-workers support for training, third training benefits.
All these dimensions have been found by (Bartlett, 2001; Noe & Wilk, 1993).
Training motivation.
“Training motivation is the level of motivation toward participation in training and development activities” (Bartlett, 2001, p. 340). As explained by Fleishman, Quaintance, and Broedling (1984), the employees’ attitude is the most important part of the training process, it significantly impacts training activities and training outcomes. Moreover, motivated employees are provided with more inspiration and this helps improve their level of skills (Tannenbaum et al., 1991).
Authors (Year) Definitions
Belhaj (2000); Buckley and Caple (1990); Ensour and Kharagsheh (2015)
T&D are a planned process of the organization and it’s to improve organizational overall purpose and it helps to improve the performance of employees, skills, knowledge,
effectiveness, and attitude of employees.
Armstrong and Taylor (2006)
Swanson (1995)
T&D activities are to help employees earn specific skills and knowledge and also to improve the performance of employees.
T&D operation is organization’s systematically process of developing, it’s to develop the employees “working knowledge” and “expertise” and to improving the job condition of employees.
Sadler-Smith (2006) Owoyemi, Oyelere, Elegbede, and Gbajumo-Sheriff (2011)
“Training is undoubtedly of value to individuals and organizations”.
The training not only improves technical and not-technical skills of employees but it also can be used to increase employees’ commitment to the organization.
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Perceived support of training from co-workers.
Blanchard (2006) stated that trainees get motivation and assistance from their co-worker.
In addition, perceived support of training from co-workers is one of the important parts of training.
Hence, the opinion and reaction other members have towards training will affect other team members, thus affecting their motivation towards the training. If a team is motivated into training the team will transmit this motivation to the other team members, leading of team members will be motivated to actively participate in the training and acquired all the necessary skills and content from the training and apply them in the daily work routine. As Newman, Thanacoody, and Hui (2011) reported that, it impact on affective commitment and also affect the participation rate of employees.
Benefits of training.
The benefits of training to influence the decisions of employees to participate in training activities (Bartlett, 2001). Ahmad and Bakar (2003) described that, employees with a better understanding of the benefits of training have a higher feeling of commitment to the organization.
The individuals get three kinds of benefits from participation in training processes. Those benefits are personal, career, and job-related benefits (Nordhaug, 1989).
Theory related to Training and Development
Several theories correlate to training and development. First, the self–determination theory suggests that for one to be motivated and to function at an optimal level, and basic psychological needs must be met. The justification of the self-determination theory from learning aspects is that a strong sense of relatedness high positions trainees to take on challenges, set positive purposes, and create high anticipations that motivate them. A recent study by Martin and Dowson (2009) states that relatedness needs to provide a motivating power for developing social procedures and adapting to interpersonal situations.
Also, as determined by Kirkpatrick (1998), the employees and individuals who are trained to successfully adopt what they learn in a training program on to the job. It is importance to provide assist, rewards and incitements to them. He divided rewards two these are; intrinsic and extrinsic.
Intrinsic refers to intrinsic inwards feelings of satisfaction, pride, and happiness and extrinsic refers to coming from the outside such as praise, freedom, and recognition, thus, rewards as being very significant for learning and commitment of employee being a train. Also, an employee and
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individuals who have passion and high attitude towards learning are suggested to be more instruct able and will tend to remain in the organization. Kraiger, McLinden, and Casper (2004) claimed that the T&D does not only have a significant impact on the employees or individuals, but also on the organization. In addition, there are many positive consequences that can be taking from T&D both at the employee and organizational levels as demonstrated in the literature section. Hence, from the literature review section, the concept of organization T&D as realized by an employee can be viewed in diverse dimension. Especially, this study adopts the dimensions suggested by Bartlett (2001) on employee access to T&D (on-the-job or formal training). Other variables that are evaluated and incorporate in the study to define the training are established on the frequency of participation in training activities (Tharenou & Conroy, 1994). How sufficient training employees receive that enhance behavioral change and increase organizational commitment, the
“Motivation to learn from training” developed by Tharenou and Conroy (1994) and “Perceived co-workers support for training” and “Benefits of training” adopted by Noe and Wilk (1993).
Organizational Commitment
Organizational commitment is an important part of organizations, they need to increase commitment and also focus on the ability it has to impact and reduce turnover intention. This study prediction that, who employees have with high organizational commitment their performance better and to remain loyal to the organization. Therefore, the high commitment to impact the overall performance of organizations. Also, numerous researchers showed the correlated relation training and development with organizational commitment and job satisfaction.
Definition of Organizational Commitment
There are several definitions of organizational commitment. As organizational commitment refers to “the view that commitment is a psychological state, which (1) characterizes the relationship with the organization, and (2) has implication for the decision to continue membership with the organization” (Meyer & Allen, 1991, p. 67). It also asserts that “individual’s psychological attachment to the organization; it will reflect the degree to which the individual internalizes or adopts characteristics or perceptive of the organization” (O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986, p. 493). Organizational commitment as “The degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization”
(Robbins, Judge, & Millett, 2015, p. 102). Organizational commitment is “most social behavior is
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predicated on the individual expectation that one’s actions with respect to others will result in some kind of commensurate return” (Dockel, Basson, & Coetzee, 2006, p. 31).
As Mowday, Steers, and Porter (1979) specified that organizational commitment is the employee’s level of recognition and involvement of employees with organizational change. This concept includes three correlated factors which are; a strong belief and acceptance of an organization’s goals and values, a willingness of the employee to make an extra effort on the benefit of the organization and the strong desire to remain in the organization. Lesabe and Nkosi (2007) as stated, the organizational commitment is impact factor employee’s behavior to stabilizing and obliging. In addition, they separated commitment into attitudinal commitment and behavioral commitment (Mowday et al., 1979). Firstly, attitudinal commitment largely, represents the degree of loyalty individuals had for an organization and secondly, behavior commitment is focused on the actions of the individuals and reflected the process which individuals linked them to an organization. The organizational commitment is related to some factors like the behavior of employees, employee’s performance, the effectiveness of employees, employees’ attitude, effective of the employee, employees job satisfaction, employees’ characteristics, their age, and working years in the organization (Bateman & Strasser, 1984). Mathieu and Zajac (1990); Tett and Meyer (1993) explained that, the organization commitments are a significant construct in predicting organization performance and intention to quit. Additionally, those three components significantly impact employees’ goals and performance, and also strongly affect to remain in an organization.
Most commitment studies widely used conceptual model for measuring organizational commitment from the perspective of Meyer and Allen (1991), those component models are affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment. Who those employees have affective commitment experience and emotional higher because the organizational know what they need and also those employees remain in the organization higher.
Those employees who have normative commitment experience their responsibility of felling higher because those employees know what they need to do, who those employees have continuous commitment their turnover attention present lower because they don’t have another chance. Also, these three components are an impact on employee’s aims and decision to remain in the organization. Most studies widely discuss the organizational commitment from either an attitudinal or behavioral perspective (Dunham, Grube, & Castaneda, 1994), as well as this dimensional
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concept of organizational behavior strongly supported by them. According to DeConinck and Bachmann (1994), they defined that as an attitude it has a focus on identification of the events that develop commitment, but the behavioral perspective has a focus on the identification of the conditions where behavior is reiterated and the changes it has on attitudes, either focuses on the state of commitment (Martin & Roodt, 2008).
Table 2.2.
Definition of Organizational Commitment
Dimensions of Organizational Commitment
This part of this study presents component model by Meyer and Allen (1991) and this variable includes three dimensions, which are first affective commitment, second normative commitment, third continuous commitment and is explained below. In addition, this model is widely adopted in the most organizational commitment studies and this model is an important role in this study also shows attitudes of work and employee’s behaviors (Morrow, 1993).
Authors (Year) Definitions
Meyer and Allen (1991, p. 67)
O‘Reilly and Chatman (1986, p. 492)
“The view that commitment is a psychological state, which (1) characterizes the relationship with the organization, and (2) has implication for the decision to continue membership with the organization.”
Individual’s psychological attachment to an organization.
Robbins, Judge, and Millett (2015, p.102)
Dockel, Basson, and Coetzee (2006, p. 31)
“The degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization.”
“Most social behavior is predicated on the individual
expectation that one’s actions with respect to others will result in some kind of commensurate return”
Mowday, Steers, and Porter (1979), Lesabe and Nkosi (2007)
The employee’s level of recognition and involvement of employees with organizational change impact factor employee’s behavior to stabilizing and obliging.
13 Affective commitment.
Meyer and Allen (1991) explained that, affective commitment refers to emotional attachment of employees to the organization, it means the employees remain to the organization because employees want to stay with an organization (Mercurio, 2015; Murray, Poole, & Jones, 2006). Those researchers explained that this kind of commitment has generally positives outcomes with the organization, also employees who have this commitment have higher levels of performance, more positive work attitudes, and those employees have a higher desire to remain with the organization than other employees. Therefore, this kind of commitment is a strong type of commitment to the organization (Bozlagan, Dogan, & Daoudov, 2010). Mercurio (2015) explained that this concept of commitment related to the demographics of a variable, difference of individuals, and with the strongest correlation with work experiences. In addition, this type of commitment impacts the behavior of employee and perceptions of individuals, and reactions of individuals.
Normative commitment.
As stated Meyer and Allen (1991), normative commitment is the individual’s employees feeling of responsibility. Especially the sense of responsibility based on formal and informal principles, rules, social norms and customs, employees’ feel an ethical duty and an obligation for the relationship to continue in the organization (Roxenhall & Andrésen, 2012). Also, this type of commitment is encouraged by the strong organizational commitment of other co-workers and colleagues appreciate for favors made by the organization, rules and concepts and the effect of a social frame of mind (Bozlagan et al., 2010). Individuals and employees with high normative commitment continue working for their organization because they know what is the right and ethical duty (Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch, & Topolnytsky, 2002). Moreover, this kind of commitment is important for the organization and several researchers explained few variables related to normative commitment.
Continuance commitment.
Meyer and Allen (1991) defined continuance commitment as determine the investment of employee and it related with employees leaving the organization. Dunham et al. (1994) have divided this concept of commitment; personal sacrifices and lack of alternatives. First, the personal
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sacrifice refers, themselves to remain in the organization because those employees have no choice.
Second, the lack of alternatives refers, themselves to remain in the organization because the willingness of employees and caused by losing the job. It is positively correlated with job performance and quality of work (Khan, Naseem, & Masood, 2016). Also, those type of employees have the financial or social dependence on the organization. Hence, this type of commitment is not strong considered in the organization. The employees are unlikely to make sacrifices for their organization and they have high turnover intention rates (Bozlagan et al., 2010; Roxenhall &
Andrésen, 2012). Factors influencing continuance commitment level are age, tenure, career opportunities, educational background, marital status, alternative job opportunities, gender, and organizational justice perception.
Job Satisfaction Definition of Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction concept has been widely researched, and it is one of the most important and significant impact in employee’s behavior and in organization behavior. The most widely definitions from Spector (1997), it stated that “Job satisfaction is simply how people feel about their job and different aspects their jobs”. It is the extent to which people like or dislike their jobs”
(Spector, 1997, p. 2.). Job satisfaction provides negative and positive feelings for employees and their performance and work. Therefore, Job satisfaction is very important for employees and in the organizational because the employees spend a long time of life in the workplace (Curtis, 2007).
Also, this concept is very important for the organization and especially human resource professionals they need to know what kind of factors affecting job satisfaction and often need to considering improve their job situation and employee’s well-being. Higher satisfaction gives employees a better feeling and positive attitude and affect employee’s behavior. Employees who have high job satisfaction will probably be more active in the job and remain on the organization (Wang & Feng, 2003). Robbins et al. (2015) defined that, the presence of satisfaction with job offers positive significant consequence in the organization, these are; reduced absenteeism, increased effectiveness, and reduced turnover intention in the organization. Most job satisfaction studies agree that higher employee job satisfaction provides to organizations a higher return, and help organizations and individuals to achieve desired outcomes, because it has straight effect on organizational commitment, motivation, absenteeism, deviant behavior, turnover, organization
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citizenship behavior, and life satisfaction of the individuals (Kinicki & Kreitner, 2006). Taris and Feij (2001) were separated the various aspects, which are extrinsic values aspects and intrinsic aspects. Frist, Extrinsic value means material aspects, like salary and opportunity of organizational encouragement. Second, intrinsic value means unmaterial aspects of the job, like type of job and autonomy of organization or employees. Therefore, to avoid such situations organizations need to divide employees’ as a means to achieve the organizational basic aims.
Table 2.3.
Definition of Job Satisfaction
As reported by Hassan et al. (2011), some individuals and employees contribute to their own success in the organization as they believe the achievement of organizational performance is part of personal aim. Hence, the employees’ attitude and responsibility taking them their personal goals also it helps achieve a goal of the organization. The research conducted by Bartlett (2001), it confirmed that if the organization invests on individuals and employees T&D and organizational commitment, most of them will become satisfied with the job and will want to stay. Also, this study findings explained that employee training, positive working situation, and rewards grow employee commitment behavior. The most widely used conceptual model of measuring Job satisfaction is that by Hackman and Oldham (1976), they described those five scales are possible to motivate performance and contribute to employee’s satisfaction. This scale includes five
Authors (Year) Definitions
Spector (1997, p. 2)
Curtis (2007)
“Job satisfaction is simple how people feel about their job and different aspects their jobs”
Job satisfaction is very important for employees and in the organizational because the employees spend a long time of life in the workplace
Wang and Feng (2003) Who employees have high job satisfaction those employees are probably will be more active in the job and stay remain to the organization
Robbins et al. (2015) the presence of satisfaction with job offers positive significant consequence in the organization
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dimensions which are: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback from job itself and feedback. The development of the Job Diagnostics Survey (JDS) questionnaire and scale by Hackman and Oldham (1975), it was adopted to measure employee job satisfaction, as it measures general and specific features of job satisfaction as correlated to satisfaction with skills, task, and results. The theory also described that job satisfaction is linked to employees and an individuals’ perception of their job, showed the aspects of the job they value (Colquitt, LePine, &
Wu, 2010). Iaffaldano and Muchinsky (1985) mentioned that many researchers agreed the job satisfaction has major effects to job performance in the organizational and numerous researchers work result shown that the job satisfaction has significant moderating relationships with many variables and also and this variable is extra-role performance in the research area (Organ &
Konovsky, 1989).
Figure 2.1. Hackman and Oldham’s Job satisfaction characteristics model. Adapted from Development of the job diagnostic survey by Hackman & Oldman, G. R. 1970, p.78. Copyright © 1980 by Addison- Wesley Publishing Co., Ltd.
Skill variety
17 Table 2.4.
Brief Description of the FIVE Facets of Hackman Job Description Index Satisfaction
Source: Adapted from Development of the job Diagnostic by Hackman and Oldham (1974)
Relationship among the Variables Training and Development and Organizational Commitment
T&D and organizational commitment is important for employees and the organization.
Therefore, recent years many studies have researched T&D and organizational commitment. The
Therefore, recent years many studies have researched T&D and organizational commitment. The