Text-referring words are ones that pick up their content from the surrounding text. This sentence in isolation does not mean much:
We decided to look at the problem again and try to find a solution.
What problem? We need to refer to some other sentence or to the context to find out.
Problem and solution help organise the argument of the text, but they d o not tell us the topic of the text. They refer to something somewhere else.
Here are some examples. What the word in bold refers to is underlined.
Pollution is increasing. The problem is getting worse each day.
Should taxes be raised or lowered? This was the biggest issue in the election. [topic causing great argument and controversy]
Whether the war could have been avoided is a question that continues to interest historians.
Let's discuss crime. It's always an interesting topic. [subject to argue about or discuss, e.g. in a debate or in an essay]
Punishment is only one aspect of crime. [part of the topic]
Problem-solution words
Text-referring words are often associated with common patterns in text, such as the - 'problem-solution' type of text. Note the words in bold connected with problems and solutions here and try to learn them as a family.
The situation in our cities with regard to traffic is going from bad to worse. Congestion is a daily feature of urban life. The problem is now beginning to affect our national
economies. Unless a new approach is found to controlling the number of cars, we will never find a solution to the dilemma.
In this dialogue, two politicians are arguing on the radio. Note how the words in bold refer to parts of the argument.
A: Your claim that we are doing nothing to invest in industry is false. We invested £10 billion last year. You have ignored this fact.
B: But the investment has all gone to service industries. The real point is that we need to invest in manufacturing.
A: That argument is out of date in a modern technological society. Our position has always been that we should encourage technology.
B: But that view will not help to reduce unemployment.
A: Rubbish. Utter rubbish.
Here are some more words associated with problem-solution texts. They are grouped in families associated with the key-words in bold. The prepositions which are normally used with these words are given in brackets.
situation: state of affairs position (with regard to) problem: difficulty [more formal] crisis matter response: reaction (to) attitude (to)
solution: answer (to) resolution (to) key (to) way out (of) evaluation [of the solution]: assessment judgement
Draw lines from the left-hand column to the right-hand column joining each sentence'with a suitable label, as in the example.
1 The earth is in orbit around the sun. problem 2 World poverty and overpopulation.
3 God exists and loves everybody.
; z u a t i o n
4 I've run out of cash. belief
5 It has proved to be most efficient. view 6 They should get married, to my mind. issue
Fill the gaps with an appropriate word to refer to the underlined parts of the sentences.
1 So you were talking about animal rights? That's quite a big ... in Britain nowadays.
2 We are running short of funds. How do you propose we should deal with the . . . ?
3 Is there life on other planets? This is a ... nobody has yet been able to answer.
4 (Teacher to the class) You can write your essay on 'My best holiday ever'. If you don't like that . . .
,
1'11 give you another one.5 She thinks we should all fly around in tiny little helicopters. This ... to the traffic problem in cities is rather new and unusual. I wonder if it is viable?
These newspaper headlines have got separated from their texts. Put each one with a suitable text.
NEW APPROACH TO NEW ARGUMENT OVER SCIENTIST REJECTS CLAIMS CANCER TREATMENT ECONOMIC RECESSION OVER FAST FOOD
PRIME MINISTER SETS OUT SOLUTION TO AGE-OLD SITUATION IN SAHEL VIEWS ON EUROPEAN UNION MYSTERY IN KENYA WORSENING DAILY
tests were being carried out to see if the new drug really did
Answer these questions with regard t o yourself.
1 What's your approach to learning vocabulary?
2 What aspect of your worklstudies do you find most interesting?
3 Which topics in this book are most useful?
26 Uncountable words
Uncountable nouns are not normally used with a ( n ) o r the plural, e.g. information, n o t a n information, o r some informations. It is a good idea t o learn uncountable nouns in groups associated with the same subject o r area. Here are some possible headings.
Travel
luggage accommodation money equipment
rn
informationbaggage (Am. Eng.) currency ( e g for skiing) Travel is also a n uncountable noun, e.g. Travel broadens the mind.
Day-to-day household items
-
soap toothpaste washing powder washing-up liquid polish Paper
C Food - -
The word food is uncountable. Try adding more uncountable words t o this list.
sugar rice spaghetti butter flour soup ...
Some rather abstract words are uncountable She gave me some advice on how t o study for the exam. - I picked u p some interesting knowledge on that course.
She's made a lot of progress in a very short time.
She has done some research o n marine life.
They've done a lot of work o n the project.
E Materials and resources
For making clothes, etc.: cloth (e.g. cotton, silk) leather wool Forbuildings: stone brick plastic woodltimber concrete For energy: coal oil petrol gas
Typical mistakes
Don't say: W h a t a terrible weather! She has long hairs. - I have a news for you.
W e bought some new furnitures. Say: What terrible weather! She has long hair. I have some news for you. W e bought some new furniture. (See also Unit 27.)
Tip: always mark a n uncountable noun with (U) in your vocabulary notebook, o r write
I
some...'
o r 'a lot of.. .' before it.Say whether these sentences need a(n) or not. Some of the nouns are not on the left-hand page. Use a dictionary that tells you whether the nouns are uncountable.
1 He gave us all . . . advice on what to take with us.
2 I'm sorry. I can't come. I have ... homework to do.
3 She's doing . . . . . . investigation of teenage slang in English for her university project.
4 You'll need ... rice if you want to make a Chinese meal.
5 Paula getting divorced? That's . . . interesting news!
6 I have to buy . . . . film for the holiday. I think I'll get about five rolls.
7 We saw . . .. . . . beautiful silk and . . . . . . . . cotton in Thailand.
Sort these words into two columns side by side, one for uncountables and one for countables. Then join the words which have similar meaning.
tip clothing case information job advice travel garment trip work baggage fact
Imagine you are going away for a week's holiday and you pack a suitcase with a number of things. Make a list of what you would pack and consider how many of the items on your list are uncountable nouns in English.
Correct the mistakes in these sentences.
1 We had such a terrible weather that we left the camp-site and got an accommodation in town instead.
2 In the North of England, most houses are made of stones, but in the South, bricks are more common.
3 I love antique furnitures, but I would need an advice from a specialist before I bought any.
My knowledges in that area are very poor.
4 Her researches are definitely making great progresses these days. She has done a lot of original works recently.
Another area that has a number of uncountable words is personal qualities and skills. For example, we might say that a secretary should have intelligence, reliability, charm and enthusiasm. These are all uncountable nouns. Choose from the list and say what qualities these people should have. Say whether they need some, a lot or a bit of the quality. Use a dictionary for any difficult words.
Jobs: soldier nurse teacher explorer actor athlete writer surgeon receptionist
Qualities: patience courage determination goodwill charm stamina reliability loyalty energy experience commitment talent creativity intelligence training
Could I have
...
? Practise asking for these everyday items and decide whether you must say a or some.vinegar duster needle thread selIotape tea-bag polish
27 Words that only occur in the plural
Tools, instruments, pieces of equipment Some of these are always plural.
scissors
shears
glasses/spectacles
Things we wear
v
Some other useful words
When I move to London, I'll have to find lodgings. [e.g. a room]
When will the goods be delivered? [articleslitems]
The architect inspected the foundations before declaring that the premises were safe.
The military authorities have established their headquarters in the old Town Hall.
The acoustics in the new opera-house are near-perfect.
The contents of the house were sold after her death.
Looks are less important than personality in a partner.
As you come to the outskirts of the village, there are traffic-lights. Turn left there.
The stairs are a bit dangerous; be careful.
The proceeds of the concert are going to the children's fund.
A terrorist has escaped from prison. Her whereabouts are unknown.
Words with plural form but used mostly with singular verbs Names of some games: billiards dominoes draughts darts bowls
Names of subjects/activities: physics economics classics gymnastics aerobics athletics maths
Note: some words look plural but are not, e.g. series, means, news, spaghetti There was a series of programmes on TV about Japan.
Is there a cheap means of transport I could use to get there?
27.1 Make a list of (a) subjects you studied at school or elsewhere, and (b) your leisure interests.
How many of the words are plural? Check the left-hand page o r in a dictionary.
27.2 What things which are always plural can be used to:
1 cut a hedge? shears 5 get a splinter out of your skin?
2 weigh something? 6 look at distant objects?
3 cut paper? 7 get a nail out of a piece of wood?
4 hold your trousers up? 8 keep a prisoner's hands together?
27.3 How many articles on the clothes line are plural nouns?
Fill the gaps with an appropriate plural-form noun.
1 (To a child) Come on! Get your ... ... ... on! It's time to go t o bed.
2 The ... of the rock concert are going to the international 'Save the Children fund'.
3 The ... in the new concert hall are superb. I've never heard such clear sound.
4 The escaped prisoner is tall, dark and has a beard. His ... are unknown, but the search is continuing.
5 You don't have to wear ... ... to ride, but it's much more comfortable.
6 The ... have forbidden the import of all foreign ...
27.5 Odd one out. In each of these groups, one of the nouns is always used in the plural.
Which one?
1 wellington trouser slipper 3 knife scissor razor
2 billiard squash archery 4 tracksuit costume dungaree
27.6 In this little story, there are some nouns that should be plural but are not. Change the text where appropriate.
I decided that if I wanted to be a pop star I'd have to leave home and get lodging in London.
I finally got a room, but it was on the outskirt of the city. The owner didn't live on the premise, so I could make as much noise as I liked. The acoustic in the bathroom was
fantastic, so I practised there. I made so much noise I almost shook the foundation! I went to the headquarter of the Musicians' Union, but a guy there said I just didn't have a good enough look to be famous. O h well, never mind!
28 Countable and uncountable with different meanings
When we use a noun countably we are thinking of specific things; when we use it uncountably we are thinking of stuff or material or the idea of a thing in general.
- -
stu ff/materials. things
glass cloth fish work
a glass / glasses
D
a cloth a fish
a work
Be careful! there's broken glass on the road. I need a cloth to wipe the table.
We had fish for dinner. Hamlet is one of Shakespeare's most famous works.
Here are some more nouns used in both ways. Make sure you know the difference between the uncountable and the countable meaning.
drink / a drink hair / a hair paper / a paper land / a land
people / a people home / a home policy / a policy trade /a trade Drink was the cause of all his problems. [alcohol]
There's a hair in my sandwich, a dark one; it must be yours.
Did you buy a paper this morning? [a newspaperj
I love meeting people from different countries. [individuals]
The different peoples of Asia. [races / national groups]
Her grandmother lives in a home. [an institution]
I've lost my car insurance policy. [a document]
Trade with China has increased. [imports and exports]
The names of food items often have a different shade of meaning when used countably and uncountably (see fish above).
coffeehea
*
potato
*
would you like
*
some chocolate?
salt and pepper
- *
a hot dog with onion
*
a coffee and two teas
b&&
just two potatoes, please!
would you like a chocolate?
%if-
an onion
@
Would you normally expect t o find the following things in most people's houses/flats o r garagedgardens? Where in those places would you expect t o find them?
Example: an iron Yes, m o s t people have a n iron t o iron their clothes; t h e y might keep i t in t h e kitchen somewhere.
1 a cloth 3 iron 5 pepper 7 paper 9 drink 2 a wood 4 a fish 6 glass 8 a t a p e 1 0 a r u b b e r
Which question would you ask? Can I have/bowow a..
.
? or Can I have/bowow some...
? Example: cake Can I have some cake?4 paper
5 rubber
6 glass
Answer these remarks using the word in brackets, as in the example. Use a(n) if the meaning is countable.
Example: O h dear! I've spilt water on the floor! (cloth) Never mind. Here's a cloth; j u s t wipe i t up.
1 H o w did you get that puncture in your tyre? (glass)
2 I was surprised t o hear that old Mrs Jones doesn't live with her family any more. (home) 3 What do you think my son should do? He's just left school and he's not really academic.
He needs a job. (trade)
4 Why did you choose this house in the end? (land) 5 Mum, what's the Mona Lisa? (work)
6 H o w can I find out what the restrictions are on this car insurance? (policy) What is the difference between (a) and (b) in each pair?
Have some sauce with your hot dog.
Shall I make a sauce with the fish?
PLANT AND HEAVY MACHINERY CROSSING (road sign) I've bought you a house plant.
Can I have some light?
Can I have a light?
29 Collective nouns
Collective nouns are used to describe a group of the same things.
a group of people a crowd of people a gang of football fans
(small group) (large number) (rather negative)
Words associated with certain animals
A flock of sheep or birds, e.g. geeselpigeons; a herd of cows, deer, goats; a shoal of fish (or any particular fish, e.g. a shoal of herringlmackerel- note the use of singular here); a swarm of insects (or any particular insect, most typically flying ones, e.g. a swarm of beeslgnats)
Note: a pack of
...
can be used for dogs or hyenas, wolves, etc. as well as for (playing) cards.People involved in the same joblactivity
A team of surgeonsldoctorslexpertslreporterslscientistslrescue-workersldetectives arrived at the scene of the disaster.
The crew were all saved when the ship sank. [workers on a ship]
The company are rehearsing a new production. [group of actors]
The cast were all amateurs. [actors in a particular production]
The staff are on strike. [general word for groups who share a place of work, e.g. teachers in a school, people in an office]
Physical features of landscapes
In the picture we can see a row of cottages near a clump of trees with a range of hills in the background. Out on the lake there is a small group of islands.
Things in gen
a pile/heap of a bunch of flowers a stack of chairs a set of tools
$b!
papers (or clothes, (or grapes, bananas, (or tables, boxes, (or pots and pans, dishes,toys, etc.) berries, etc.) logs, etc.) etc.)
29.1 Fill each gap with a suitable collective noun.
1 There are . . . of mosquitoes in the forests in Scandinavia in the summer.
2 As we looked over the side of the boat, we saw a ... of brightly coloured fish swimming just below the surface.
3 There was a . . . of youths standing on the corner; they didn't look at all friendly.
4 You'll see a ... of cards on the bookshelf. Will you fetch them for me, please?
5 The government has appointed a ... of biologists to look into the problem.
29.2 In each case, one of the examples is wrong. Which one?
1 Company is often used for: actors opera singers swimmers 2
Cast
is often used for people in: a play a book a film3 Crew is often used for the staff of: an ambulance a plane a hospital 4
Pack
is often used for: cats hyenas wolves5 Flock is often used for: sheep starlings pigs
2 Draw a line from the left-hand column to the right-hand column joining collective words with appropriate nouns, as in the example.
1 a clump of
lh
ouses2 a range of midges
3 a gang of fir-trees
4 a swarm of elephants
5 a row of bed-linen
6 a heap of mountains
7 a herd of schoolkids
Rewrite these sentences using collective words. Don't forget to make the verb singular where necessary.
1 There are some tables on top of one another in the next room.
2 There are a larce number of people waiting outside.
3 The people who work there are very well-paid.
4 A large number of sheep had escaped from a field.
5 She gave me six identical sherrv glasses.
6 She gave me five or six beautiful roses.
29.1 Some collective nouns are associated with words about using language. Underline any you can see in this news text and make a note of them in your vocabulary notebook.
T
HE JOURNALISTS raised a Police replied that he was notwhole host of questions prepared to listen to a string about the actions of the of wild allegations without police during t h e demon- any evidence. In the end, he stration. There had been a just gave a series of short barrage of complaints about answers that left everyone police violence. The Chief of dissatisfied.