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行政院國家科學委員會專題研究計畫 成果報告

量子密碼協定之研究與設計

計畫類別: 個別型計畫 計畫編號: NSC92-2218-E-002-054- 執行期間: 92 年 12 月 01 日至 93 年 10 月 31 日 執行單位: 國立臺灣大學電機工程學系暨研究所 計畫主持人: 雷欽隆 計畫參與人員: 吳宏仁、廖燕華、李俊頡、陳寬達 報告類型: 精簡報告 處理方式: 本計畫可公開查詢

中 華 民 國 94 年 4 月 1 日

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行政院國家科學委員會專題研究計劃成果報告

量子密碼協定之研究與設計

Study and Design of Quantum Cryptographic Protocols

計劃編號:NSC 92-2218-E-002-054

執行期限:92 年 12 月 1 日至 93 年 10 月 31 日

主持人:雷欽隆 台大電機系教授

一、中文摘要 在量子現象被運用來提升計算速度 後,量子電腦的概念已逐漸形成,目前數 個量子位元(Quantum Bit)的電腦已經實驗 成功,而更多量子位元的電腦也正在設計 與驗證中。利用量子電腦之強大計算能 力,Peter Shor 提出可在多項式時間內解出 因數分解的量子演算法。目前密碼學中許 多重要的安全磐石,都將面臨被破解的夢 靨。不過,已有學者利用量子現象設計出 完美安全(Perfect Secure)的密碼技術,這 些新發明著實令密碼學家相當振奮。的 確,量子電腦的來臨對目前資訊安全造成 危機,但也是個轉機,它將為資訊安全與 密碼學開創全新的研究領域。世界各國學 術機構正展開量子計算的相關研究。 本研究計畫的主要標的是研究現有之 量 子密碼協定並了解其設計原理與技巧。希 望藉由基礎理論之研究能對量子計算之特 性與能力能有更深一層之了解,進而設計 出實用之量子密碼協定。 關鍵詞:量子計算、量子演算法、量子密 碼學。 Abstract

Even since the introduction of quantum computation to the computing world, many practical quantum experiments have been

successfully carried out. By taking advantage of the tremendous computing power of quantum computers, Peter Shor has shown that factor large numbers can be done in polynomial time. Public key cryptosystems, digital signature schemes as well as many other schemes that depended on this difficulty of factoring large numbers would become vulnerable. On the other hand, perfect secure cryptographic key distribution scheme based on quantum computing has been developed.

Indeed, quantum computing will threaten the security of many classical cryptographic schemes, but it can also make classically infeasible computing tasks become feasible. Quantum computing has attracts the attentions of most leading scholars and research institute in the world. The main goal of this research is to study existing quantum cryptographic protocol and understand how it works and its theoretical foundations. By studying the theoretical foundations of quantum computing, we hope we can have a better understanding of the power of quantum computing and can design practical and effective quantum cryptographic protocols.

Keywords: Quantum Computing, Quantum Algorithm, Quantum Cryptography.

二、緣由與目的

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後,量子電腦的概念已逐漸形成,目前數 個量子位元(Quantum Bit, Q-bit)的電腦已 經實驗成功,而更多量子位元的電腦也正 在設計與驗證中。自從1980 年代起,已有 許多的量子電路及量子演算法發表於各種 不同的國際會議及期刊論文,例如量子電 傳(quantum teleportation) [14]、Deutsch’s 演算法 [38]、Deutsch-Jozsa 演算法 [37]、 量子傅立葉轉換[31, 52]和量子搜尋演算 法(quantum search algorithm) [53]等。這些 演算法皆比傳統的電子計算機演算法具 有更高的效能。其中最具震撼性的就是 Peter Shor [63]利用量子電腦之強大計算能 力所提出可在多項式時間內解出因數分解 的量子演算法。其後,量子資訊科學便成 為一門極具挑戰性以及潛力的學門。它吸 引了無數從物理、數學、電機、以及計算 機等領域的學者之注意。尤其是目前資訊 安全中所深深倚賴的公開金鑰系統 (如 RSA 密碼系統或橢圓曲線密碼系統等) 大 都是基於解離散對數或因數分解等問題 的困難度,因此如果量子電腦成功地被實 現,基於這些問題之困難度的加密系統、 數位簽章、及密碼協定都將變的不安全, 無法達到有效的保密效果。因此,目前密 碼學中許多重要的安全磐石,都將面臨被 破解的夢靨。不過,已有學者利用量子現 象設計出完美安全(Perfect Secure)的密碼 技術,這些新發明著實令密碼學家相當振 奮。的確,量子電腦的來臨對目前資訊安 全造成危機,但也是個轉機,它將為資訊 安全與密碼學開創全新的研究領域。世界 各國學術機構正展開量子計算相關的研 究,Stanford、U.C. Berkeley、MIT 以及IBM 等成立了SQUINT 研究團隊,其目標 包括合成分子型式之量子電腦、展示量子 演算法、研究如何發展大型之量子電腦系 統等。此研究團隊有美國國防部之經費補 助,預計於近期內能設計並建置一雛形 NMR 量子電腦。在另一方面,Caltech、 MIT 及USC 等校亦成立QUIC 研究團隊 投入於量子計算之研究。此團隊之研究內 容除了理論的探討外亦包含了實際層面的 研究,最終之目的亦為實現量子電腦之雛 形。除了上述之研究團體外,亞洲如中國 大陸、日本及新加坡等亦有初步之研究成 果,但台灣各大學目前在這方面的研究則 顯然落後,值得各單位積極投入人力與資 源,以期在最短時間內躋身世界一流大學 之列。 三、結果與討論 儘管BB84 是一個理論上安全的演算 法,仍然有許多新的方法被發明來改進它 的缺點,近年來大多是利用Entanglement Swapping (ES)來達成。同樣是利用ES 原 理,卻各有各的優缺點,其中難能可貴的 有通信過程中不必傳送量子的特性,或是 最後一個演算法完整且提供認證的功能。 可惜仍沒有一個比較完美的方式來實做 QKD,其中大部分的方法都不像BB84 迅速 傳送完量子迅速測量能夠避開量子狀態保 存不易的問題,這應該是目前實做上的一 大困難點。此外,不需搭配事前share 動 作的方法也相對的比較複雜。目前除了舊 有的BB84 之外,其他方法都只是理論上可 行罷了。因此在技術進步之前,還有很大 的空間讓我們發揮。 此外,在這個先導研究中我們發現量 子密碼面臨的主要挑戰如下: 1. 量子理論仍在起步階段,要掌握各種 量子模型之能力是極具挑戰性的作。 2. 若沒有實驗平台,在設計量子密碼協 定時,必須完全用理論來推導驗證, 所以必須要確實掌握量子之特性與行 為。 3. 在量子密碼協定中必須發展更精密的 錯誤更正碼及檢驗技術。建立量子通 道是研發量子密碼系統最重要的一個 步驟。目前主要是以光纖傳輸為主, 實驗平台不易建立。 4. 目前尚未有實際可行的量子簽章技 術,因此很多安全需求如不可否認性 等不太容易在量子模型中完成。 四、 計劃成果自評

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在這個先導研究中深入探討BB84 QKD 演 算 法 並 與 三 種 最 新 利 用 Entanglement Swapping 的 方 法 比 較 。 這 些 採 用 Entanglement Swapping 技巧的protocol 除了比前者新之外,更改進了BB84 的一些 缺點。此外,在本研究中我們整理出量子 密碼面臨的主要挑戰,這些結果都有助於 後續量子密碼系統之研發。

五、參考文獻

1. Ardehali, M., "Efficient quantum cryptography", manuscript, 1992.

2. Barnett, S. M. and Phoenix, S. J. D., "Bell's inequality and rejected-data protocols for quantum cryptography", Journal of Modern Optics, vol. 40, no. 8, August 1993, pp.1443 - 1448.

3. Barnett, S. M. and Phoenix, S. J. D., "Information-theoretic limits to quantum cryptography", Physical Review A, vol. 48, no. 1, 1993, pp. R5 - R8.

4. Barnett, S. M., Ekert, A. K. and Phoenix, S. J. D., "Optical key to quantum cryptography", SERC Nonlinear Optics Update, United Kingdom Science and Engineering Research Council, vol. 5, Summer 1993, pp. 3 - 7.

5. Barnett, S. M., Huttner, B. and Phoenix, S. J. D., "Eavesdropping strategies and rejected-data protocols in quantum cryptography", Journal of Modern Optics, vol. 40, no. 12, December 1993, pp. 2501 - 2513.

6. Bennett, C. H. and Brassard, G., "An update on quantum cryptography", Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of Crypto 84, August 1984, Springer - Verlag, pp. 475 - 480.

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"Quantum public key distribution reinvented", Sigact News, vol. 18, no. 4, 1987, pp. 51 - 53.

9. Bennett, C. H., "Quantum cryptography: Uncertainty in the service of privacy", Science, vol. 257, 7 August 1992, pp. 752 - 753.

10. Bennett, C. H., Brassard, G.., Crépeau, C., and Jozsa, R., “A. Peres, and W. Wootters. Teleporting an unknown quantum state via dual classical and EPR channels,” Phys. Rev. Lett., 70:1895—1899, 1993.

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16. Brassard, G., Crépeau, C., Jozsa, R. and Langlois, D., "A quantum bit commitment scheme provably unbreakable by both parties", Proceedings of the 34th Annual IEEE Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science, 1993, pp. 362 – 371.

17. Cleve, R., Ekert, A., Macchiavello, C., and Mosca. M., “Quantum algorithms revisited,” Proc. R. Soc. London A, 454:339—354, 1998.

18. Collins, G. P., "Quantum cryptography defies eavesdropping", Physics Today, November 1992, pp. 21 - 23.

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Church-Turing Prniciple and the universal quantum computer,” Proc. R. Soc. London A, 400:97, 1985.

20. Ekert A. K., “Quantum Cryptography based on Bell’s Theorem,” Physical Review Letters, Vol. 67, No. 6, 1991, pp. 661-663

21. Ekert, A. K., "Adventures in quantum cryptoland" (in Japanese), Parity, vol. 7, February 1992, pp. 26 - 29.

22. Ekert, A. K., "Przygoda w kwantowej krainie szyfrow", Wiedza i Zycie, July 1991, pp. 45 - 49.

23. Ekert, A. K., Rarity, J. G., Tapster, P. R. and Palma, G. M., "Practical quantum cryptography based on two-photon interferometry", Physical Review Letters, vol. 69, no. 9, 1992, pp. 1293 - 1295. 24. Flam, F., "Quantum cryptography's only

certainty: Secrecy", Science, vol. 253, 1991, page 858.

25. Gottlieb, A., "Conjugal secrets - The untappable quantum telephone", The Economist, vol. 311, 22 April 1989, page 81.

26. Griffiths, R. B. and Niu, C. S., “Semi-classical Fourier transform for quantumcomputation,” Phys. Rev. Lett., 76(17)3228—3231, 1996.

27. Huttner, B. and Ekert, A. K., "Tolerable noise in quantum cryptosystems", Journal of Modern Optics, to appear.

28. Muller, A., Breguet, J. and Gisin, N., "Experimental demonstration of quantum cryptography using polarized photons in optical fibre over more than 1 km" urophysics Letters, vol. 23, no. 6, 20 August 1993, pp. 383 - 388.

29. Nielsen M. A. and Chuang I. L., Quantum Computation and Quantum Information, Cambridge University Press, 2000.

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34. Stewart, I., "Schrodinger's catflap", Nature, vol. 353, 3 October 1991, pp. 384 - 385.

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36. Townsend, P. D., Rarity, J. G. and Tapster, P. R., "Single photon interference in a 10km long optical fibre interferometer", Electronics Letters, vol. 29, no. 7, April 1993, pp. 634 - 635.

37. Wallich, P., "Quantum cryptography", Scientific American, May 1989, pp. 28 - 30.

38. Werner, M. J. and Milburn, G. J.,

"Eavesdropping using quantum-nondemolition

39. measurements", Physical Review A, vol. 47, no. 1, January 1993, pp. 639 - 641.

40. Wiedemann, D., "Quantum cryptography", Sigact News, vol. 18, no.

2, 1987, pp. 48 - 51; but please read also [48].

41. Wiesner S., “Conjugate Coding,” ACM SIGACT News, Vol. 15, No. 1, 1983, pp. 78-88.

42. Zimmer, C., "Perfect Gibberish", Discover, September 1992, pp. 92 - 99.

參考文獻

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