1 .
THEEAnLΥ
STAGΞ
oFTHΞ
Ⅲ 。DERN︳ZAT︳°
NPRUCESS︳
NCH︳
ⅡA: ︳TSPΠ
。 Ⅲ
。
T︳
VEAⅡ
D。
BSTRUCi︳
VE「
。
HCES
”
a〞
竹′勿智 奶〞I.
Hadthemodem比
at㏑hdriⅥ。condu●tedin tholateC●ingpeHUdacⅡeved比sexpected goal, ambdern也
edCⅡ
㏑aw北
ham°
narchy wUuldhave﹉e甲ergod. Ufc。urSe,thefaⅢ°
fthe㏑
oharchyis n。ts。methⅡγξtoberegretted.NeVertheless,U㏑.a’sfa山肛e t。real此
emodornL●
Ionhasboenthe°
auseUfmuchpoverty
●㏑Ungh●rp°。
ple.I,thoStudvofCⅡ
na、modo田
山ηt㏑n.many叩
nUi缸shave
。
。
mp研
edthemodern出
血°
n.roces§inCh㏑aandJapanandh.veaskedwh9Japan
●
c∥evedmsg°
alm。r.Iapmly::Lo°H㎎
attheq.est㏑Ⅱ
frUmapUlit●oalpdnt ofⅥew,sUmeschUlarsh印Kemp比滋 布dthe。adequato leadershΦUftheManchu gU叩
m甲
ent.Uth田S,froman●conUmicpo㏑
tofⅥ
ew;havema㏑
ti㏑edthat∥wasbecauseChinafailedtUdevd°
prat㏑nalbourgedsca●
talism.StⅢothershaveⅥ
ewedthequestiUnfrUmtheangleofcult“alheritageah●saidthatm南asbecause竹●
血
t●nalc°nfuc㏑nd°ctr。os lack●dthe㏑
petusfUranyprUuessivechangein
sU●㏑ty.Actuallv,°rUgres㎡°nahdreiUgres蕊
Un
inasUdetyshouldnotbeat-tributedjust to onecause.η●
ereasUnsfUrtheManchugove…
m°●t、failuret。s●
eedup北
SInodeⅡli2aiondiivewerocomplicated.Inthisaiticle,t●eauthUrwⅡl
ivtoexam㏑
et…squest㏑nfrUm迅
hiSt°ricⅢpantUfⅥ
ew,em●ha茁Zingcultl1ralandecUnom㏑
factUrsandCh二h↙srelaIδnswlhtheWestern powers. ⅢstoHa●sha叩
p㏑kedtheyearl84Uas四
arkngthebe」
n,ing°fCⅡ
najsmodefnhistory,on thegoundsthatihthaty°arChinaendedits poIicyofseclu-茁
onandjo㏑
.dtheworldsYstem.Inth●
new∥
stUr梵alper㏑d,U旺
nasuffcredrepeateddefeats㏑horbattleSwithfUre…intruderdandwasfUrcedto opehher -438一
.2 .
doUr to th°
。
ut血
dewUrld.WhVWasSuchalarg°
couni9一
二山 5,UUUyearsδfcⅣⅢzat㏑
ncont㏑
uallVdefeated●ytheWestern powerφ
ThegenerallYagroe●reasUnkthatthoW,Sternc°
u㎡Heswero′㏑oder㎡zedwⅡ
㏑ Ch㏑ahadf茁
㏑dtU
makeanyprogresslve。h.h色
ein。
s tr●d比bnalag沁
ⅢturalSot怡tV.Yetafter.theUpiumWar,lWasthecommonas●
lation ofmanyC㏑
neset比ellectua1●t。 real二2emoderhLationandin thelastΠftVyoarsδftheCh’㏑gDynasty,thevbxertedgeat
effUrts to thatend.It●
anbesamthatC㏑
n〞smδdemⅢ
stoIykreplete、社h㏑
- . stance忘ofth●士de&●atbnto moderni之at㏑n.DuringthclaStΠ…yyear§可 theC盯ingdynastY,pnmafYempha由SwaSput
on thcrehoVaJ●nUfmⅡi位江yteCh四lUg9㏑C㏑naan●then。ntheiefUfmof
pUlitical㏑stitut㏑ns.η㏑ Sd}Sti●ngth叩lngMUvement(18ω一18與)wu中was
a虹ned attherenovat㏑nofthemⅢta●◤wassuspendedwhenth°M●hchugUvern.
ment lUst theS㏑U.Japane坤
War.坤
erthatwaI,intellectualsbegantUr由山犯thattherefUrm ofpUl北ical inst二tutionsWasoSβentia1.η㏑Sledto theR●fU1Ⅱ︳M°voment
(1895-1898),wⅡ
chcal!ed●
rthe㏑
i伍t㏑nof一Western mⅡitarv,po上1caland
p缸上amentarywstems.Neverthφess,theRefUrmMovementwaSqulcklYsuppressed
bytheoonseWat二Vee上t°con竹oⅡ
edbytheEmpfossDowagef.th●
caⅢfUIpoliticalrefUrm sUundedag缸
n㏑
19U5whentho mod田
血山㎎
elitei血t。tedtheCon.
stituti°
.alMovement.Th●
goaloftheConstmut㏑
ialMovementwaβ
thc●stabli-shment ofapar上
amentafYsYstem,pluspUliticalan。educat㏑nalrefU1︳︳
︳●
nd
ecUnUm比recδns竹uct㏑n.later,whenCh…aa●apt●dms一ftUwor●﹉#●9外inm出
由吧 dfeVUlut㏑nandⅡ
naⅡyoverthr●wth●Manchumδ
narthvin l9li,the modaⅡⅢ之atiUnd山eentoredihtUaneWera.Thepef㏑dunderd工scusslUn㏑●is田比沁lekthelaSt色ftYyearS°fthcCh’ing DVnasty.Duringthat
位
m●,Ch…ahadaunⅢ
e●gove與m●ntandthe#able●aiti。al s二tuat㏑nneededfUIm●&汩出mt㏑h.Herthreemoder㎡Zat°nmUvem.nts°ouldhaVeatta㏑°dre血afkaueacⅢ
evementsfthe9hadnUt°
°metUan.ndasaresult
oftheJapaheseWar prUVocation,the。ppUsit站nofthec°
nservaJⅣesand●
nally,therevUlut㏑nhe左
dedbVDr.SunYat-seh.Yetihterms ofreal modemLatbhv由
γ 上ttl°wa忘acⅡcved.Inthisarticle,theauthUiwⅡlfUcus on thetau§es°ft㏑sfailure.
II.
A●
rer。qu你丘eUfmodern比
a伍on必t6h.Vetalent●d●e°pleWoIkout plansandfU工伍
em tohaVesuⅢ
dentf㏑andalIesourcestUSuppUfttheseplans.Compara..3 .
t∥
eiVspeaHng,hUwever,peoplearemore二
mportant thanmUneybecausepeUple
can make m。
ney, butWithmonUyalone, a mUdernizaJon program cannot
necessafilvbereal克ed.Hcre,therefUre,weshaⅢ丘“tdkcuSsthequest㏑nofmen.
Inbtherwords,wcWant to take色lU。kattheleadersUftheInodern比ation
lnUVe-ments㏑thelatUCh,㏑gperiod.
In 士a&伍onal Ch㏑ese socioty, peoplo wero classiΠ°dintotwoStrata.The
upperlayercon㎡
stedofthegentry,ahdbelowthemwerethecommo,●
eople. AdⅡlissiUn to thegentrVclassdep°ndedon pa§singthec山西l se」吋c.exainin色ti。nS.AfterpassingexaⅡinationsatdf免ient levels,peoplewereawafdedthescholarly
honors of ∫几aη堅少磁羽 色°vernment studont), 玉h刀g名雨ε㎎ @mper㏑l student), ε%磁︴θ刀 Φr。Ⅵnc㏑
lgraduate)and6物
切6乃仇fmetr°pol二tangraduate】thoywere
th°
nq㏕
●edfUrre°ru比ment to thecivⅡservlce: Any male oould take thUexa㏑㏑atbn proⅥ
dedtheywereversed㏑
thcC°nfuc㏑nclas由cs,althUughfa㏑ilvbackgroundwasSUmeimesta㎏
n㏑
tUc。nsideratbn.Asar°
sult,thelead㏑色s●at1.m㏑tradⅢUnalCh㏑es°sodotywasc°mpUsed°fg●n●◤wh°w。reversedin
Confuc㏑nethics.that°xan●natbnsYstom lastedfUr morcthan lpUUyearsand W色SnotabUlisheduntil19U51”hen北was血J°doutastherootcause°fthelack
σfsUc北ⅡprogreSs in〔夃﹂na.2 ﹉
Withthea°Ulit㏑noftheimpeHalexam㏑at㏑hsvstomandtheestab上shent
。
f巳n。WStVlesVstemofeducat㏑h,d比nabegantUwalkalUngth.roa。°
feduca-t㏑nal 血odo㏕Zat㏑n,andtⅡsin tⅢnhe1●edU旺natUmUdUrnLo你Sodety.When
a ncw sVst.miβestabkshed, 北 takos sUmetmmefUrpe°
pletogetaccustomedto
比.F°rexa㏑ple,al血
Uughthec∥
Ⅱse出汝”e不amin㏑n.sYstemwasabUlish.d,:thogentrvclasscont㏑
uedtoexktfUrab°
utth士tVoffUrtVyeardbefUr●北grhduallv啦thγ
edaway.Unth°
Utherhand,althoughaneψ educationalsVstemwaseStab-上shed㏑19U5,sUmeinstitut㏑n●fUrthele#㏒
°fWestem knUwledgehadalreadybeenest色b上shedlongbefUrethat.F°
rexamplo,asearlyasl851,theΓ
切刀gㄌㄅ力K功口刀, the日LstWestern→tyl°cU1lege;hadbeens°tu●.Subsequ°
ntlymanyUther
Wostern1好1.schoUlsw●I.●就●bliShedbym三ss㏑nar跆s.In otherwUrds,m°d°
m
.ducaⅡ°
hwasavaⅡ
ablein someparts ofthecountrybefUrel9U5.Itwas in山iswaythatthelead山
略claSSgraduallvbecamemodeⅡ泣於d,whⅡetheinΠuence°fiad北ionalSUcletydoclned.TheintorweaⅥngUftraditiUnandInodernityis shoWn bythofUⅢo、由㎎aagram:
.4 .
19U5
FrUmthoabUved㏑
gram,丘canbeseen:that鈕
tha噯與the9earofl9°
5沁
the㎡d二b二ewatershed.theobliquelinesmark theioaldemafcation.Althoughia&t㏑
n
hasbeenUnthed●
c上neWhⅡemUdern北yhasgainodInomentu珥theformerhas notW北heredawaYtotallV.
Educat㏑nalbackgfound㏑
岫
uyhasagreat inΠuenceUna●
ersU㎡s血Uughtandp●rson㏕
北
y.Asth°Socialelit●in th。lateCh’ingDynasty︺eiedrⅡiedmainiyin thetra山㏑nalC㎞
●S●c1日㏕CS巨ndh含d∥
tleknUwl°dgeofWestcrn t㏑㎎ s,th斑handlingoftho moderm2a伍°
nmvowas ineⅥ
tablyinnu°nced.by竹a&伍onaleth㏑alvalues.Forexample,●u山晚 theSelf.Stoengthen山唱
MUvemont㏑
embeis ofth●modernlzmge批
eⅡk●Π㏑oeKung,TSengKuo-fan.ndⅡ
Hung¢hangallempha.
sl2.dtherehovationUfIniⅡta…◤teohnology,becau忘●theledu.at二omlba。kgroun●
wasm缸
nly竹aditi。nalandthel knowlodg●ofWestern tⅢngswas。η北odtUthe
gun§andcanhon theyhadseendw㏑
gthefUro地nⅡ山●S°nS.Inth●t minds;there.. 及汀e,ChlnawUuldbeabletb●
efend北selffrombut由deintr㏕onandquell internalrebelliUns aS1ongasl ㏑proved北s mil北arytechnolUgy.In ot●
erwUrds,they
believed that traditiUnalCh㏑eSeculturo tδuldbe safeguardedas longasChina
posossed advanced mⅡitary t°chnUlUgy: A slogan prevalent at that 垃
me waS
“Ch㏑ese learn㏑g fUr the fUundation. Western loarlung fUr application”. This
indicatos th熱thetideUlogVwasIadli°na1. Ⅲ osUc㏑lel北
ebocame血
。reconsdous°f伍
eneodfUr㏑
odemLaⅡ
ondlIr㏒theperiodUftheRefUrinMUveInent.Theyb°gant°realiZethat itw色Snec°ssafy -43∫_
. .69 .
to learnfroInthoWesterncoun臼﹂eSnUt only.bouttechnologicaldevelopmentbut
al§
oaboutt●
●refUfmofpol。㏑al inst北uⅡUns.KhngYu.w㎡
;theleaderofthe
movement,beⅡ
evedthatthepowerUfWesterncUuntⅡ
●swasrUotedn°
t onlyinthel advanced Inil北a呼 te●hnolUgy but ΠlsU ㏑ Uther th土吧s. Inthepr°cessUf
p〥上t●alrefUrmadvU●at°
dbyKhng,therewasacallⅥ
gorUuslytbrefUrm thepUliticalSyste㏑
.AlthUughKhngandhksupporterswerealsUmembers ofthe
gent=y class, many Uf thom had tr●volled abrUad and h廚dreadWestern bUbks
about pollical;s。cialandecUnUnicscienc°s in transla●Uη.CompaJ9edw北
hthe
1●ader§ofthe Self-S打engthen●
ngM。
vement;theyhadabetterunderstand…吧 UftheWesternworld.Asaresult,the只
efUrmMovementwasr沁
her㏑content thanthoSelf.Strehgthen㏑
gMoVe㏑
ent.Neverth°!ess,becauseKhng’SrefUrm prbgram was toovast㏑scopeand●h●measⅢ°sadopt.dbyh㏑
nweretUodrastic,h°wasΠnallyfUrc●dihto o文ⅡebyhiscUnSewativeopponents. ﹉
Theestablis山Ⅲ…ent°faphrl㏑menta呼SYstemwasthe°ent一山conoern。fthe
CUnst丘u伍●halMUvement,alSUin比㏑
tedbyK●
ngYu_w說.Ⅲ
oConst北ut㏑nalktswere°onvlnce●that°
nceapafⅢ
amentwasestabl㏕㏑
d,pe。plethiUughoutthecounIvwouldunleandthecouniywould●
ec°m°Icha…dstrUng功吼
h㏑●
ShUrtpeΠ
。●。f位
mo.η
㏑yfaⅡ°
dtUuη
dγs!白ndthofactthat北wasnUteasVfUrChina
tUimple印entac°nst北ut㏑nalsVste㏑…thelateC∵㏒ Dvn●st9:TakefUr㏑stance
theestablishm。
nt ofapar㏑
ment.B°fUreelect㏑nscouldtakeplace,aoo.ntrv-〝吐de censusWould have t。 b● conduct●d tb gather infUrInatiUn ab°utvUters.
Be由dos,北
Wouldtakealongumet。
mak●peUpleunderstahdtheimpUrtanoe°f ●lecⅡons,esp。。
allyathtiη
ewhenab°
ut8U%UfthcC缸
nesepUpula伍°nwas
il上terate: ﹉
Alt●
Uugh”
。st。ftholead引心oftheConsti山啦onalMovem°ntcamefrom the 竹aditi。nalgen竹
yclaSs,hotafewofthemhadrece∥
ed日m°derneducation由therinC㏑
na,Japan,EurUpe;or theUn北
ed︼
㏑tes.3 UbⅥU.slyth°Const北u∥onalleaderswere㏑Uremodein inUutlook thantheleaders ofthe proⅥ
ous
modom-此at㏑
nm。
▼ements:Nevertheless,theConstitut㏑nalleaders stⅢhmⅥ
好 e㏑pha_ 茁Zedtrad北㏑n由lethitalvalues.From theabove,北isclearth“thele日
derSofthemUdernVh1°
nm°
vemehts in thela●●Ch’二ngpeⅡodwereUnthewhoIeprofUundlyinΠ
uencedb9打
aditional,that必Confu●㏑n,cultⅢ°.It〝therefUrei㏑●erati晚
toeXam㏑
ethe㏑
ΨactoΓtho.6 .
CU!fuc㏑ne」Ⅲc,on themodernLat㏑
nofCh止
n.Wh●therConfuc㏑houltⅢ°facⅡ北
atedorⅢ
h山
redmUder庇
at㏑n一has.lUngbeen岔C°niUVerslalsu切
ect.Inthel95Us茁
ndthe196US,n°
ta few schUlarS
fUllowedMaxWeber’sthe°●of‘thisw°rldlVten蕊on’’andsa二dthatCUnfuc㏑hi血h在danadverse e“bct on modern也ationbecauseit lackedsufΠdent motivefUrce
fUrchange.Th心
kndofjudgmentwas㎡
ost olearlVelud●ated㏑thewr北㏒Sof
MarvandArthl1rW山
典t°fYaleUn∥
可siy.ArthⅢW山
典ts出dthattheC㎞
esepoopletendedtU㏑
me〝°th●mselves…thememoHesUfpa就
JUrVbutscarc中y
madeanYpIanSfUr progross.4Ⅲ
S㏕
先 MarY甲灶翅班比 S缸●thatthefaⅡΨe可
th.Self-Strengthe㏕到
tMUVe㏑
°.tdl1H㎎the工e圯nofE㏑
perUrT㏑ng㏄h血shUuldbeattributed to Confuc如mi虹h、 C°nServatiVe bent.9 Uh theotherhand,therapid eoonomic developm.ηt UfConfudan soc㏑t㏑
ssudhasTaiwan, HUng KUng,
S土理β
poIeand SouthKbrea由
hCethe l99UshascausedmanyschUlarStodoubt
Wober’stheUry.Somebft●em,﹉
suchasWm.η
㏑odUre°.Bary●ndⅡ
㏑masMetzger,evonbe上mβthatCUnfuc㏑n“
miasfwtheredmoder血
1on.. RecentlV,PrU. fessofMot2gerev●nexprossedtheoplILiUnthatth●tension ln thefat㎞onro-lation“●p二
ntheCUnfudhneth比
Ⅱ由出比fItherm°der㎡2at㏑n.,What,then,㏑therealreasUnfUrthela●
kofprUgre聑
in m。der㎡2at㏑n㏑
thelateChlngperloφ
Ⅲ elackofoo#.ct1●adership isconsideredbysomeasaba茁oreaSUn.BUbv㏑uslV,hof㏑a1●°nclu㎡on﹉h五syetbe●nreached°nt●
eques1onas to
whetherConfudani田niSadvantageUust。m。dorh犵atk】1,anddiscussions ofⅡⅡs
matter ooⅡ㏑
uetUbevery㏑
虍好.’Aswecanseo,Ⅱ
歐or沁alresearch㏑th.pasthaSto sUmeoxtentbeen㏑
Πuencledbypr”叩㏑gacadem㏑竹end斗IntheYe.“﹉befUre196U,academiciendsfavorodthe‘
he。Iythat trad北ionalet紅calvaluesaIed“.advant●geoust°thereaⅢzatiohofmUderILlzatk刃landthat巨non.Wostern s°ciety
would ㏑ev北
ablybeoonfrUntedW北
hnuInerousdif三cult跆s in the colfso of
mode“uzaIonf北
didnot relinqukh北s竹ad比ion..° Sincethe l96US,h°wever,thktheorvhascom°
tUbe山
scred北ed:Ⅲ
erehasb°en.sw㏑
gto theoppos。eextreme.Insteadofbe㏒
茁nobstacle,trad北㏑nhaSb°enregafdedashel°fulto thepromot㏑nofmodernizatioh.i一 Japanhass°
metinesbeenusedasanex●
mplefUf just輛tngthenewtheoryΓ
Ufcourse,Wedon°
tcondonethepractic°bl㏑dlV fUllUw㏑gprevaⅡihgacadem沁trehds…researchwork.Indep.ndent th㏑㏒ bas.d on independent studyis土nportant.Confudankm k repr°sent.dma㏑
lybythe4日
昭厖t工Jandt㏑
M●∥ε拋J.啟ncetheThngindtheS.ngDynast㏑
s,t●esctw。claS出cshavenot onl9b。enreadby
th°gen廿
yclaSsbuthavealsUboenreg田
dedbyth°c°ⅡiInon peopleasthe伊Ⅱd山吧p血
ciplesgovernmgan㏑
diVidlmrs c。nduct. NUVerth●less, 北isS●ang● fUius to.7 .
Findthat.herear.a,rg.ments°
UthfUrandaga㏑
#econ°m㏑develUpmentin thes● twowo一㎡:Inthe⊿刀aㄉε札 fUrpxa㏑p1●,thefUllU田ngpas興geadVUcates●conomkdevelo●
m.nt :
‘When.theMasteiwent…
。
Wei,ZanΥ●口如 YuIacted.sa山iver●f血§ ′ c㏕ 圯aTheγasteIUbserved,“HUwnume…usafethepeUp㏑!”而
﹉ 幣●,↑㏑cethev缸甲husnumerU氏γ㏑ tmUre﹉sh叫bedUnefUrthe㏑∵
‘
駎 曲 一them′’waothe犯plv:牲
ndwhentheyhaⅦ
bee,enHched,wh-mUre曲
am”●°ne?,,Ⅲ.Masters缸d,“Teachthem.’’-2一
〃 叩 ε比6.一
h叩
aic缸叩 p日S支吧●S●●ⅢngfUrecUnoⅡicgrowth,fUrexamph
恤
dukeWanⅣ
en︳UfTanglT’… 封 aske●Mend汰abUuttheprUpef
WaYofgUvem㏒
akngdUm.Menc平ss茁d,”ThebusinessUfthepeUp㏑mayn。tberem二●slv.attend●dto.
Men…喲 甲sUq.Utedtheυ°δ竹.rPUθrr,小SaYing:一
…
thed叩山山
tgUandgatherthegrass, andatη逛典ttwlstyour rop●S;The●名etupqu”klyUntheroofs;-—
S。°nmu斑We㏑曲 mw㏑g㎎血
the師
n.-3MoreoveI,healsUsaid:
Th●W妙Ufthepeop1●is●Ⅲ 止 一。Iftheyhaveace比田㏑ 小比” 茄d,thev
wm㎞
、.fkedheart;iftheyhavenUtaceIta㏑l∥el血o°d,th呼●㎡Ⅱ
﹉ nothave●6xedheart.〦4
WhathehaSsaidisan indication thatthereisacloserelatiohshΦbetweenwealth an●㏑C田血 ㏄ .Mon山略 Wantedall thepeUpletUbewell off.
IntheLw㎡
㏒ s,b°thCohfucmsandMendushadtheuhderstahd出
名aSwe
havetodaythatth°
grUwthof加
dustryandco㏑merce㏕
llbringwealthtUsode一 Ⅳ.C。nfucms s“出 ‘‘Ⅱ」emechan㏑
,whowishestUdoⅢ
sworkwell;must丘
咚t
sharpenhidtUUls.’’isIndeed,theimprovement oftUUlsandihstmm●nts is thekey to°nhanceindustIa1●nd●ommerc㏑
ldevelopment.Mendus一
adthefUⅢow㏒
t°田乎:“
Agreat田
u●Cerd。es not,fUrthesakeofastㄐ
“dw°
rha.,alter ord°aw●
yw北
ht。ema出
山吧︴ino.IIHou几
naIneofalegendaryarcherIadnUtnγ
the -432_.8-SakeUfa螄
mafcherjchangeI曲 mlcfUrdra㏕ngthebo、′:,.T。seclro.standard ofeXceⅢencek imp°rtant inan…dustr㏑l北edsock比y. .
Desp北
etheabove#●
t°㏑eηtsadv。ca●ngeconom㏑
de▼elopmen●,●°ni田γⅥews °
analsbbefUundinbothConfuciusandMencius.ThemostweⅢ
.known
example你山
estatement ma&bYMe…
ciuswhenieweⅢ
﹉
㏑
s中心㎎
Huiof
工iang:
Thek㏑ts缸d:“VeneIables江,sinceyouhavehotcUuntedlfaIto●°
me
heIe,a&就anceUfathUusand〞lUne〞isabUutUneu比IdUfan市㏑ ︳,
mayIpr●sumU thaty°u aIeprovided〝πthcounsels to pIoFlt
myHng-d。mγ’M。ncmsIe田㏑色
一
WhVmusty°
urM的estyugethatw°rd℉rU-_ ntγwh“IaInpI°vi&dW二th,arecounsels t°behevUle.°eand㎡ght-●Uusn●ss,andthesearemyonlVt。pios.’’
i7 :
Jud」㏑
gb′
q田「°nt就andards,“㎎一
血 你出色
UUdruleimercs中
mstUhavebeen
no reasonfUrM.hcius todiscUⅢagehlIn.Un othdioccasionsalSo,M°nciusshows h心血sⅢ¢
。fprd沘
.Seekng.Forexampla .′
Hewh。iises批C°ck-。roW㏑g,andaddresses比mselfeaInesuvto the一●Iact㏑eofⅥnue,is.山Sc”l°
。fShunIalegend田ymleisam tohave mledarUun°22UUB.C.,under拉is reign,thecUunt呼Ⅳ〔s notedfU工peac。
andUrder1.HewhoIises飩●°ck-c了°啪ng,mdaddIθβB●s㎞ 蚪feaI.
nesuY.othepurmm ofg中,i9a●isciue。fch㏑IarUbber︳.∴8
It is strangefUrMendustUrefer to thosewhUseok mater㏑lga㏑as iobberS.
如
thoughth例呻knbSudhre!汀
°
nCein the′π
aㄉε
f9,。necanbofUuhd﹉
inanotherimpoItantCUhfuo㏑
㏕
stwUrk一一
th。G〃a〞
乙
e●r勿加
gf
﹉
Virtuei§theroot;w°alth二Stheiθsu1●‥ ‥Hence,theaccumulaton。f
wealthis th。w紗tUScatterthepeopl”andthelettingmbescatteied
amUigthem isthew叩tUcU…汜tth●peUple.一.When”wh。pIe㎡des
φer●出中 “
t恥
m.●.Ⅱsr到dm●S…sch呵吵 … 。ss,h.mu斗 beunder由einnuenceUfsU㎎血a1,meanman.‥∴m心
tate,g…iSnUttUbecon“de6dpro”.血y,but㏑sProspe●
,﹏
∥
be水叩
Ⅲ
d㏑r逛井此e°u忘heS忘.一9
Ub㎡δuslY,二hth°aboveparagraph,mateⅡ狂ga㏑赤
dH」
朮eUu忘it忘sarecUh﹏deiedas㏑
●
om●atib1.W北h●a°h°ther.Inthe4刀aㄉε
9J,thereareplent9of●xh°rmt㏑ns tUendⅢcpovert9:●9
Thebㄐ
ectUf㏑
、
upeI二Urman is truth.FUUdis not㏑sU切ect.‥The
sup.Ⅱor mηidη*●us﹉1●stheshUuldnUtgettmth;heknUtan〩iUus
lest poveiYshUuldcom°uponⅡ
m。
︳︳
A㏄…血古【,who品m㏑dkuUn”伍,andwhUka…猛 edUfbadclUthes
and”
●
fU°d,is平Ut nt!。bedk叩●
rsedwith.午E﹏Γ
avagance㏑ads toin血bUIdina“
on,ahdpar血
onytU㎡
eanne.s.It怎betteitUbemeanthan tobe㏑subord㏑ate.22AdmIableindeedwasthevltueUfH血 IYUnHui,m.favUHtedisc”leofC。nfu.㏑〢!Witha血㎡glebamboodish
UfHce;a出蟈egUurdUfd】血k,an●IMngi㎡㏑smeannarrUwlane.Ⅶ㏕ e
otherscQuldnUthave叩●umdthe山st平ss,…由dnUtamUwh、jUvtφ beaffectodbyit.A…9ableindeed↓asthevirtueofHS∥23 ’ Wi伍coaIse●c●tUeat,wi伍water tod=㏑k,an●myben●edarmfUia
PⅢbw;—IhavestⅢjoy”themidst oftheseth㏑gs.R㏑hesand hoηUu↑acqu土●dbVumghteUus呷.sareto measnUatingd●ㄐds.η
Inshort,Confu山嘰 Sl地●tedmater㏑lg.㏑,just日ShiSdiscblessaidthattheMaster
“
S°Idom spoko ofprof比.”26
T°sl1Inu●,-theroareafgumentβbothfUr.ndag●insteconoⅡ●cdevelop㏑●●t
一 the4刀a厖θrJahd砌防 刀C油S.NeVertheless,fthequestio﹏isⅥe由edasawhUle,
thecentr㏕m。江㎡ th●
CoifudanandM品
ciancanUhkthecult小隬t站nUfetii抗land”
Uralpf㏑c”les.Andofal!thes°
p血
dplos,:%enevUlencσ’kgⅣ
●ntUp
pHoHty. BefUrethe】
middlo oftheChIhgDynasty,theChines.p°
pulaIo.had
alwaYsrem由曲daboutlUU㏑
Ⅲion.Withan田
翠n由nceUfiatuIalresUl1r&ξtheU∟nes°peoplecUuldlead日Ⅱ跆ofrela」叩
mseindoo㏑
●rt.AlthUugHn㎡蓋iUf
themWere●
●h,fewofth●mwere㏑
屯切ect po﹀erty.ItwasnU‘s廿angether●fUrefUrthesUcⅡ
d…
tbadvU●a伍.spliu㏕
l中,●°nsid㏕ngthe伍
“ 伍●tt●ev叩
j●y●danevenbetter lifethantheordiharvpeople.Itwasbecau§eofth“reasbn
that in the2,UUUyearsuptUthen,pebpleacceptcdth●Coifuchnide●6ΓadvUcat一
㏒
ethicdandm“
山
itywhⅡediscUura」ngthe…
Ⅱ
s…t6fm“
eⅡ加
g各血
.Th各wh6lesituationchanged,howeVer,Wlhthes.dden increas●Ufpopulation tU4UU㎡
Ⅲ㏑
h
duHngtheIniddI°°ftheCh︴ngDynasty.Itwas notuntⅡthenthatpeoplebegln toexpeHencedrIcul」bs.BUththe4〞
a尨ε
rJ●ndπ
θ
力
t加jcUnSist m㎡〢
yUfthesa,in白d。fth●setwU
sages.Inth°setwoworkd,thereaJema班
yad㏑
°
i∥㏑
ndc●η
c°mⅡ吧
etⅡcsand
㏑
Ura上ty,althbughtheyarenot systematicallv缸φ
hged.血fferent interpretatioisUfthesetwUdas“
cshavebeen㏑
adeat血
ffeiont_叩es.FUrexamp坤
,WangAnt
sh血(1Ul2一1U86)whow日
sp…
meministeiduΠ
ngthere㎏
nbfEm●
erorShen
.lU.
Tsl1ngUft“
NUrth…
SmgDvna吋
y,㏑
terpr“ed﹉th●。°nvefSat㏑
n●
°m唧
ηMeh由
吥andI山
地 H血ofL紐
ngrefeIedto.b°
veinadifferentWay㏑
order一‘o facⅡ。ate㏑s poⅢ伍caliefUrInsthroug●ec°no㏕
oc。nsiuc伍Un.Hes缸出ToMentm吋the↓or●pIo●t㏑eans t°bi㏑gp工ont tUouIcouηt呼叩d
peUple‥‥ In”nm㏑g迎y田㏑entam曲S,heupheldthep山肥φeUf
山典∞°u興eSs.%
WangAn-sh班
Was oneof●
h°fewschUlarSψhU●nt●●pretedth°田easof
Confuc㏑sa血
dMendusasb●
㏑g…favUrofc●o●°m㏑developmont.AftertheSungDynastywh㏑
he,dodin l279A.D‥
CUifuc●nsch。lars tend●dtUfUcusth由
attentbnUn
血oraldkc●上noatthe°Xpen紀ofpractical isSues.The斑tua1onhas
rem狂ne● unchangede﹀°n﹉
uptUmodorn lmeS.”
ItktherefUrenbψ
onderthatsUmepeUpleaccuseConfuσa㏕sInofla°●ngthemUt∥.fUrcefUIηoder血Zat㏑n.
: Ⅳ . ﹉
TUoope㏕
thε紅 na、ch田唾 ㎎ 斑tuation,…oIeaderSUftheSd}Strengthen㏒Move㏑ent 竹梵
dtUf㏑
d主th°Uret㏑albaskfUrth●lrefUrm p=句ects㏑●heCo9”
-d白ndasd托
s.WhenⅡ
Hㄐng-changan●Pr㏑ceKungufgedthatChi,aadoptfUr●地﹏technologvtowaidofffU-e地
uattacks,the9ideaw.s°
bⅥ。
uslybased.nthe
t1le例γ °fpr°由時SSp=op。unded㏑theCbnfuc㏑ndassics.SchU!ars quUtedthemeaβ
UfConfu由
略andMe,c㏑
stU”
stifYthenoedfUr田
cialc”nge:F。=●xa…Ple,
ChengKu.n.Y㏒
m●
: 一 ‘Aman°
fⅥ
此●eW°
uldmakepIo●
。racco㏑ o●at㏑nsa°
cUrdmgtUthe伍
mes”fD.ε〞加θUr奶
〞〃φ乃光一
‘C°nfuc㏑●
WaSthe位
m°ous aInUngal!thesag.s,a,d北is︴逛出比。
°●St。m●keproperacCo㏑m。dat㏑ns to the
ti㏑田” 〔竹θ刀ε翃6);色nd一‘ImPa.s●外 fUll。wedbychangeandchange〝碰llead– 。
馭班utiδi.Per●●t曲ti°nca.beguarante°daft㏄sUluti°n”fBUUπ.raa確θJ).28
EchU山名 theafUre.men“onedtheorvoftheBUUπUrU㏑㎎csab。ut‘tmpasSe,
change;andsUlut°n,”
WangThoη
a…ta㏑edthat“therekhUtⅡ
ngin thewoHd
thatwⅡli°m缸n㏑nchangedfUrever.”η Heals°said:“Confu“us.‥aftert●
kng
intoconsmerat㏑
nthema吼
sanddemer北
softhepU上
c㏑sadoptedin thefUur
dynasties,fUrmulatedap“●cYth“c。uldbest su北h你伍ma.‥
rco,fuch坶〝t●tUdaY,wem.ybecerta㏑
th井hewouldleamfro㏑
Westerncountr怡s in田akng
甘andportat㏑nfadl北k沁
,armS,a”
mun北°nand㎡
aoh。e,,’’3° Unt●e●eod●
rchange,Hsu.hFu┤班fengsaid: “Asag●inaysometimestakeoth●
r㎎
”asaInodel,but in othef伍
meshem主
yalSoch色ngethesystemsadoptedbyUther§
ages.”3i Ⅲ esoareonlvafewexampl°sto showthatschUlarsweretr”ngtU”
stifYtheneedfUrchangewlththesayl名s°fC°nfuciuSandMon°ius.
Uηthe。
therhand,sUmeotherConfuc●
nschUlars tUokarathercons°Ⅳ.dt∥° attitudetowardthemodam北ati°ndrive:F。ro文ample,theGrandSccrett口yWUJen
said: ﹉
﹉
Ihavelearhedth之ttheWaytoestab上shanatiom is to layemphasisUn
pηpHetvand山典teo叩n●ss,nUt on powθrandplUtt㏑
g.The…
nda.mentaleffUi。sin them㏑dsUfpeople,nUtin t。chniques.平
﹉
He㏑
血Stedthat北wa§no.seto leafnWostern technUlUgv:U曲
pφpleUflUyaltvand斑nceitvcanhelpus● 。叩bdu°fUre圯ners,
andU㏕9●.oplew二thprop…etyand巾曲”Uusn●sscanhelpustUstreng.
thenourselves.T㏑s isa伍出名understahdablenUtUnlvtUthewise.WhⅡe
§tudY㏑
g…
eC°nfudanclas缸°s;SU”epeopletakefUre珀nersasthelteach●r.Fiom th〝,wecanalnUs●ieadthelm㏑ds.It iscertain t●atthey
wⅢhotb●ableto mastoiwhattheyhavelealned.Eveniftheyhavea
6。°dc°mmant ofWhattheyha●elearn●d,hoWcanwebesurethatthey
i arehone就
andhavede山catedthemselvesto thecount﹁°3●﹉
Mahyothersch°lars sharedWoJe●s叭●wpo㏑t.s.
Inthelat°Ch’l名pynaSty,scholars㏑fa▼
。
rofWestern比
色tibn:asweⅡasthoso﹉opposedto it●11句HedtouseConfuoianethic§to support thUlargum°ntS. NevertheIess,underthethreat°fWestern technUlUgy,especiallV印血工t田γ ●°ChnU.
lUgY;北
Seemod㏑
eⅥtablct●atChinashouldleamfrom thoWest.Desp北
ethot
oppo茁“on to th恥,W。Jen●ndhis suppUrterscouldnndn°betterwayto subduefUr曲興ers.C。nsequ●ntlVt●eyceasedthel oopos∥
UntUtheWester且
矻atbnprU-gram.
﹉Although th● leaders ofth° Self.StrongthcningMovement seemedtohave
ga㏑
edtheupperhand,theywereafr狂
dthatthcVmightboatta●kedbythecUh.
seⅣat∥
esrtheymadera血
calchangeS.UntheUthorhan●
,hUwever,theywere
also res竹工ctedbyCUnn℃㏑ndoctrineS,an●JⅡs prUbablywastherUotcau忘eofthe與 。
wprUgfess ofthem。dcrnV●t●
ondHⅦ
.For°xample,althUughtheyrealLed︴holnportanceofbu●1●㏒ r色ⅡWaysandexplormgundergroundresotlrces,t●
eydidnUt
daretUtakcactbn.ASaIosult;theSelf-Streng山向山始 M°v。m.ntWas血
㎡tedtotherenUvat㏑n°ftheordnancei。dustry.
-428-. 12 -428-.
UptUtheperiUdoftheRof㏑
mMovemeⅡ
t,themodem山
土珀 由teandth.
conseivative d上te conInued. to hold diamo伯HcaⅡy oppo㎡to at伍tudes toward modermzation,alth°
ughbothofthemhadbeeneducat●
dalongtraditional上nei
ⅦⅢeK’angYu.woiwasabIotU”
stiㄉⅡsr°fUm programwith°xamplesfrUmthe
clas蕊cs,Ⅲs opponentsattackedh山n◥〃比hthesam●clas缸cs.Somehaveaskedw●
ethertheleaders°ftheConstitut㏑nalMovomentand
th°
191lR.vUIutionalsUweieinnuencedbyConfuσ
ane血
s.Thea.swershould b°po由t∥o;alth。ughthe9hadbeenbpposodto●
ach°therbefUro the●bo上t㏑nof
the㏑
●erialexamination sVstem.㏑aders ofth°Uonst北utionalRefUrmMUv●ment
likeL㏑ngU∵
H加hoaidChangUΓ
㏑nhadw。
hSchUIarlVhonUrs㏑thej㏑p㏄㏑lexam㏑at㏑ns,ahdthelead●
rofthel91lrevUlut㏑
n,Dr.SunYat邳
9n,°㏑phatltallY㏑血
catedthathohadboen㏑
Πuon●edbytheCohfuc㏑
netⅡ..ButlshUⅢ
dbe…
adeclearherethatalthUugh山ee比obecameincrea由nglVmodeHlmtho.arlv
years ofth●twentiethceht呵,t●●ievUlut㏑nariesw.re血Ur●dete一Ⅲ㏑.dthanth●oUnst北utiUhalkts tocastawaythebondageoftrad北㏑nalid°as:
LcadersUftheConstitutionalMo祐
moitandtho191lRevo1●
tion stood UppUsed to each othef.「Γhe fUrm.r believed that the count, could be mved
thrUughthe●nfUicement ofaconStitutbnal monaIchv,thatk,thrUughar●fU1一1︳
thatwouldke.pthoUrlH巳lS。σalandpUⅡt㏑al structⅢo㏑tact.Thelatter㏑茁St●d
on overthrU㏕
ngmonarch㏑
alruleandestabⅡS㏑略 aI●publicanfUr血 。fJⅣ
“i
mentandcon蕊
deredthisasaprereq斑s北efUithorough.go㏑grefU1Ⅲ.IntheyearsbefUrethel91l Revolutio.,th●set”ogrUupswithLithepro-mod●ⅡⅡzat㏑
me山
時cr二t沁笓
edeachother.After血
erevUlut㏑n;however,theconstitut㏑nalktsboY-cottedthefevolutionarvcause,thusunde」m吐n㏑gpart ofth°r.voluti°n工ㄇ◤effUits
to re。rganizethoc°untrV.3β
IneachstagesUfthelateChtngmodern笓
a伍ondr”
e,thelea引山自cladswaSdiⅥ●edinto moderh笓ingandcoiScrvati嗨gr°ups.B。thgroupsbelieved㏑the
valueoftheCUnfuc㏑
neJicand竹
iedt°support山eio9,i。
ns㏕
thregardt°Ch㏑a’
sm°
deⅡⅡzatiUnwithoxamplesfrom thoConfucianclassics.Thom°da口Ⅱ.zmg e1∥e﹉afgued that it 由as aC°nfuoiahtheorVth●t society should change accUrdingto theumes,whⅡethecons.rva伍VeSpledgedto s●feguafdtheConfuc●●
tradition:ConSequently,thetw°oontend出吧p田伍o忘‘Iiticiz.dandbo9c。tt●
deach
other.Althoughth怎culminated㏑Soc㏑l prUgresd,㏑some工espects lweaken°d bothsides.It is nowdⅡficultfUrus toaScerta㏑wh●therthe竹a山“onalCohfuc㏑
n
ethicreallvobst。uctedthemodorn出
出㏑n prUc。ss,butlk●
u●thatunderthe
le㏕°必Ⅲ
poftheCUnfudan tmat㏑
nalists;th°tempo ofthe㏑
°dern。a田°n曲
●inCh㏑
atendedtoborather slow.。fcUw●e;thesloWprogresscanalsobeat廿一
13
●utedt°manYotherfactofs,m●仕曲 始
aque血
onwe、㏕l nowexamino.╮
:
、〡 ∵ ﹉
V.﹉
‘
●
:
﹉Aswehav.men伍
on.d﹉bofUro,tho出mmd㏕
:cond北㏑nofa°
ount,isalsoa
det咖
」㏒呂faCtUr…m§血°山川此出bn.If北
lacks suⅢaentca,tal,●如Ⅲbe Lip。s田uefUra.oΨ
〢一
ytUdevelUpthe」
musiyi㏑
p°rtant tUtheie血zatibnUf㏑°der㎡羽喵
on.Dmth.‵
cr㏒
gU唧
menthaVeenoⅢ
典monUvtoca呷
°utth°moder一
t㏑hprUgram?
﹉If acount呼
want6tochangeffom
●n礎
…cultⅢal society﹉㏑toa capita上st°ne,∥has to.s●pp.ft你㏑d喲Ⅱal°
。nsmcti°h、㎡thagrioultⅢe.Indusi四growth ㏑
T獅
ank一
rem1lt oftho㏑ΨI●mentat㏑noftⅢ
shndofpUl。
y㏑thel95Usand
thel96Us.Farmers reallVsufferodalUssatt一at位
meast旅
莊PrUΠtswereusedfUrinduS色出Ⅱ devel。p㏑°●t. NevertheleS母9 had they notend叮
。dthat loSS,北w°uld
hav●been㏑●Us㎡blefUiuStU.田
。ytUda′sreηγkab1.indusⅢ
algrUwth.
﹉At the turhofthe
●.n1Ⅱy, tho Chinese governmentfaⅡodto reali之oth.
㏑ΨUrtanceofha遨
㎎ 鍵︻c〢turesupport㏑
dustrV:More。ver,th。tra山t㏑nalg田γn中
eup-dΨ
!。#en●
°●tU一thee。°nUmicactM曲
sUfth.peUp㏑
and﹉coⅡo。tedasfeψtaxesfΓom t●emas pos蕊ble.Trad1●
。hally,thetaxes°o班ec‘e●
by
th●g°verIunontf●ll m茁㏕
V㏑
tUtw。●atogo㎡egpUll ta〤andlandtax.PoⅢtaxwas
p缸●a°cUIangt。then●
mberof.dult malesbetwoenl6and6。
years°fa,go inafamⅡy,在
ndmelandtaxwasp缸
da°cor血ngto theacreageof1日Ⅲthatahousehbldowned.It is p㏕
oftheia&t㏑
nalConfuσanet㏑cthat‘七herearethree㏑列。 i
offencosagamstf山缸 ●二ety”Ifa山吐et。●upport paientswhentheyareh上ve,faⅢ1re∴
tU山
°thema●
ecentbuHalupon the“death,and&㏕ⅢetUpro●l肥eanhel),and
Ufthetkee,●
Ⅱ.la就kth●grave就Uffence.Undcrtho㏑
nuenceUftⅢ
set虹calvaluo,eachcUupIo●opedt°b● abl。toglveb#tht。FlvesonsandtwUdaughters;
Neverthe1.ss,despit●thel一aspLatio,吃°haVeinoIeβons,pe°pledecⅢnedto paythe iequiredaIno.nt°ft日X.ASar●sult,ovaslUnsandoηⅢnis缸ons jn
populatiUnre-璽str.tionwerocommon throughoutthe。oun竹y.This﹉
waSmUroeⅥ
dentafterthe r山興。
ftheEmperUrKhng.h軋…atk,aftert●eseventeenthcentu呼.T°°VercUme
thk﹉malp】巴Cti●ea●d,●tthesaIn.位m°,get日CleaJ9ideaof一theactual populatioh,
EmperUrKhngH“
d“汰㏑d㏑
1713toconvert thepo∥﹉taxt°aⅡXedain°untfUreachd必由Hct,regard1●ss°fth°numbero「.dult males.B.一山﹂sded蕊
ohhadagreat
impact onCh。﹂asmresult.d㏑ah㏑
moderateincrease㏑thepopulationwⅢch㏑turn ledto th..xhausⅡ
onUfnaturalreso1Ircos.
﹉-426-.14.﹉
Tohaveab說
●。understand㏑g.ftherelationbetweon theoonsumpt㏑
nUf
n巨tl1ralresUl1rces茁hdthepopulation,北二§neoessaIYforus tocxaⅡ ineth.popula-tbhgrδ由
thiatebverthepast3pUyears.Acoor血
ngto thestu血esofHUΠ
ng.tian●山吨
htP田
1血s,的theChinesepo●ㄩatiδn㏑
“eased打om加
etUsevent㏑
esihthep㏄
bdfrUml4UUt。
1913:Duringtlesameper㏑d°f位me,thetothlH°ieage ofarabl色 lan●㏑creasedthree也mes,andthey始
ldper〞“ofarableland°ne〞〞 你equⅣalehtto o.o“xth。fanacre)w日●d°ubled台eethod㏑grambelow>
CⅡ
㏑
a’sP°●
11lation,ArableLa.dandFbodYield㏑tI●P田㏑dfr。
ml4U°
to1982
Year Population ﹉@旺i上ion) ArableLand @旺il上
on怮
) PerM●.Y㏑
ld (CattV)14UU 65_8S- 37U i39﹉ :
16UU l2U一
15U 67U
一一﹉
L65U
﹉lUU一
15U 6UU
一一 1685﹉一。
:74U
一一175U 2UU-25U 9UU
一一177U 27U 95U 2U3
185U 41U l21U 243
1873 35U l21U -—
1893 . 388 124U
﹉一一
1913 .41U 136U
一一﹉ ﹉ 1933﹉
5U3 1534 242
.1957 647﹉1678 276
1982 1UUU
一一一一
SUurcogYeh一ch㏑nWang,五〞 σ 孔Xatbη加 坳 〞 勀Ja加a,Iπθ一口9fJ㏄
am-bΠdge,MasS.HarvardUn”er由”PreSs,1973),p.7.
只
emarks:TheΠ
即「efUrp。pulat㏑n in l982kbasedoharocentcensuS,Conse一
quentiV,the㏑creasein popl1lat㏑ncancelledoutthc㏑creaso㏑ag㏑ultl1ral°utputwⅡ
chwasmadeposs山
leby㏑
creasedacr°ageofarabl°la丘dand㏑
ΨrUvedprU-ductMtV.Comment㏒
Unthks丘
uatbn,MarkEMnusedthethooⅣ
oftheh口出-levelequi上
brmm
竹aptUexpla㏑whyCh㏑
awasunablo tUmakeabr°akthrUugh㏑eConomicandsUa缸
development.aBWh.tElⅥnm。
antwasthatalthoughCⅡ
㏑〞§ agHcultufaltechholUgvreacheda㏑出 levelUfdevelUpment,enabl軸gthepeasants. l:9 .
to increase thei product山πty, the ra°id incroase㏑pUpulati。nmeant that the peoplewereonly日bIetU血●keabareI咖g.InUtherwUr●s,th。peasant『output
wasalmostallconsumed,withomlyγ
訂y㏑mitedsurpIusbeingleft﹉fUre●on。Ⅱic ●evel。pment.Nevertheless,from thed珀野●
mabo叩
,wecanse°thattherewhs stⅢafUod
sⅢpluslIlth。lateCh︴
ngperiod.Inl873,fUrexample,therewerel21UmⅡ
lion〃“
oflandandthey始
ldpor〞
“was somo243catt㏑
sUf田
a㏑.Un●ernU工l1lalconditions, gross output shou1● have been 294,U3U nillion catti●s. Since tho
averag.Ch山oSecUns.medabout one一●attyofgra㏑perdayandthetotal(】」nes●
populationatthatt㏑
owaS41UmiⅢ
㏑n,themη
ualgr缸n oonSumption sh。uldhavebeen l49,65UmⅡlionc.tties,onlyabouthalf。
fthetotalUutput.UfcoⅢ
βe,thisw.swhatcouldbee本
●eCto●undernUrmalconat㏑
ns.Ⅲ
eactualout●utwas
probablydecreasedby3Uperc●nt or sU,dueto thei.cessant n.tⅢald6adtefsand
W缸SUfthelat●Ch’
ingp…
Ud.Evenw北
htⅢ
s如
nuⅢ。utPutφ
bUut如
5力2imⅢ
Ⅲ
°
ncatti.S),th°reshouIdhavebeonastlrplusofatleast5U,UU。Ⅱ
iiⅡoncatties eadhyear,andtⅡscouldhavebeeh﹉convertedihtoareInark.blea”ount。fcap北alfUr industⅡaldevelU●ment.
η{ 如…reto●
set”
a伊沁Ⅲ
tⅢalsⅢpl外fUr㏑du“Iald°velUpmentwas
partlYaresult ofth●laok ofunderstanang一°
fmoder㎡zat㏑namUngtheso屾
.l㏑e andpartlyaresult ofthe●olicyofl地加
ttaxa伍on.EmperorKhngh㎡
’
sdeckion﹉not. tU㏑Wtaxacoor山
㎎ to山
enumber●
fadult maleS㏑afamⅡywas㏑
udedㄙsa
benevUlent pUl二cvin theeaflvyearsUfthee地hteent●centurv.Th沁
poIcY;hU中
ever,became.h㏑
drancetUChina、piogr●ss.Ierthe㏑
m_n…eteenthcentwy.Inthe2UUye研
safterEmperUrKhngH㎡
staxpU1●ywasenfUrc.djthat怕,㏑theporiodfroInl713to1913,thesourcesofgovernment revenuerema㏑edla,rgelythe
same,exceptfUr somoadditionalta本eS:M甲●whⅡ°,c°
mmod北
ypΓicos 竹ipIed.LetustaketheyeaI●
175Uandl91Uasanexamp1o.Annualgovernm●
htrevenues㏑19IUwere﹉
onlv54●
eroent°fthel75。igl1refyoutak●㏑Πatbn㏑
t°con茁dera-:tion.99 In Uther words, gove㎜ont revonuos decreas°d by ono half㏑
stead of
imcreasmg.
ASa四
SultUfthel由
t伍xation pUlicv;串Uvern平ent revenueswerenUtsum一.c㏑ntto support﹉
anUVerall indus竹ⅡVat㏑n一program in th.mⅡmin“eenthcentwv.
Accord㏑
gtochahgChung一
i、estimate,thegross na伍onal pr°duct加188U-is
2〃8UmilⅢ°ntaUls,●n●thegovernmontf㏑hn.㏑lbudget㏑
191Uwas2U8mⅢ
iomtaels.Suppos㏑
g山attheGNPin l91Uwasthesameasth“
㏑18βU,°nlyabout7.5per。°nt°
fthel91UGNPwas.sedbythegovcmmoht...Ⅱ
曲kafa伍
erlU-percentagecomparedwiththel°
p田Cent recorded㏑J巨pan㏑
188U.Withouta
. 上6 .
§竹°
ngInanc㏕
b白曲,the山
山 °s●gUVerΠmentwasunab1●tUunderta﹏m°dem_.
眨at㏑n prUJ°ctsUn°nyl打gescale.TheK㏑ngnanAfsenal,:fUr●kamp1.;w㏑山iⅣ吧S﹉
estab㏑”
dduri㎎
theS。lf-Siengtheni㎎MUve㏑entasthejlm曲
㎎ ㏑amfactⅢorUfadVancedw°
aponrvfaⅡedto tl1rn outlarge●uantitiesofmodemamsand
a㏑m山曲 ㏑i‘faun山UhmlYh…quaⅢyUr to o6iductsySt°mat㏑research㏑tUofdn日nC●prUduct㏑
nbecauseⅢ
s●lln曲l°peratingcap北alnuctuatedψⅡdlyfrUm﹉Veai:tUVei.tiThc●
ffUrt tUest中li與aoonstimt㏑nalsvsteη㏑a血aWaS矼
sUfm§士色
tedby〢
㏑anaⅢproblem6.Itwa.°
nlyth●…thatthcC∵
t吃govemm●
朮﹉began心免dhard.prUssed”f㏑°ne〦ThrUugh●Un就ant。蒞。 一
ti●n。
by.中
centfalgUVernm●nt,thelU●
Ⅲ●
uth°一
t㏑s㎡s.becam●
°
xhausted;andsUmeUfthemoven
hadtUb。ar山…色
n°伍
ld°Π
d竹.匆Howo沌
r;mWasnUtth●
casethatCh㏑
aWasumb1●
tU ra曲° ca●伍lfUI
㏑
odem曲乩㏑
n.AS叩
h●vealreadγm°nt.neo,thei。w●i●fU“㏕
dableagr●cⅢt血
lsurpluseS that ●°●ld﹉have be.n ●sed fUr ㏑du由由山蹈t㏑
n.In
竹色dⅡ出〕nalCh㏑
ajhU一︷βr;↓emth…asi。teq一allYd好比山uted,色n●m°
heVwasa血
由郎●d㏑
th°hand● ofti。出enivclasS_Uft●etUtalGNP。
f2,9SU㏑
Ⅲ㏑ntaels㏑188。,675血Ⅱl㏑n
taels°
r24percent)was㏑
theh在ndsofthegont,wh㏑
hnumberedonlv8。
U,UUU°b°ut2per&nt ofthetUtal populat●n)..s it一日S°fC°ⅢseL田ηssniefUrthe平
tU﹉ooi血methoi partUftheGNP.Had;theVinvest●dl。percent ofth°
t…
。。
me㏑
㏑
dus㏕
devel°●
m●nt,chin如
omdhave比
.n.杺
untrvⅣ北
hah㎏
hrateof
㏑Ⅶ血ment...a山
㎡SabⅢ妙’tU㏑”st mhbeseenlUmthe㏒
出mt.Uf㏑
dustr二algro-thθ
.4percent)betweenl?12andl’
“
undertheNational斑gUVerIun.nt.“η Ⅲsra卹㏑dus山lgrUwthSh。u1●b●se.nasr.sultingfrUη.graSpUfthe晚nfi_
cance°fcap。
al蟋
蕊ment.
﹉ ﹉﹉
﹉
In﹉i●&t㏑
nal(h㏑
a,p.Up1●﹉曲gardCdthUlandtheV°
wnedasth°。nlVcon. t≡一
●
96pert9.”
托…”
accumulatodcnoughmonev,thevwUⅢ
dbuVlan己
r
thev﹉∞ 血
dnUt恤
●1…●nd●
犯YW㏑
te↓thevwU血
dbwvthe#mUnevunder
t●
.扣
●n¢‘阿 celv.nyo四啪shUdtU…
e6tt㎞
Γmoi.,㏑
bu血
●蕊.Through oontact”北hfUr山與erS;hUw.ver,theyboga●tU●hang.the土meas.η㏑ 9.4pefcent 封。
wth斑
te㏑山㏕us呵
W平a”
SultUf山曲 m。。
lUgicalchangc:恥
masRawsk
nδtodth“
mo…
q…m:s㏑
d呷
Hmdeγ
elUpm.nthaSareg”n缸n#“
e,m°stUfthe斑
dⅢ由呼be㏒
●oncen竹atedinShangh缸andtheNbrtheast.S㏑ceN°rtheast. ℃h㏑a.nter.dtheJapan.wsph.reof㏑
Πuoncoaftei tl93!,We㏕ll not●●alhere w北h﹉北岱●〤●田怕●ce㏑㏑●ustfⅡd.vUlopment.Inst.adw。are色°工㎎ t°dkcuss theexpe“
…∞
.●fShanm_
.I一﹉
1’3●,Shangiai’s㏑dus竹Ⅱ
produ●t㏑na°c。unt°dfUr:
●
.1.lpercUntUf卹
Gro外Na”
nⅢInoustr血Product′‘WhvwasSha班
典缸 abletUb●bδme色
h㏑
duSt」h!i2edc丘y?thero●SUnfUithis必p●rtlybec●use北kad比
y
_423一. 17 .
WhereconⅢmerc㏑lactiv北iesalreadyhadboenΠourish㏑gfUrseveraldecades,and
paItlybecausethepUlitical stabⅡitY…theSh●ngh缸fUre㎏nc。ncess㏑nsencoⅢt
agedpeopletoInakeinvest㏑ents.
VI.
一FinⅡ
9weshaⅢ
examinetho山mpactofChih′s on°bunterwihtheWest on
北S㏑odernLat㏑
n:1kJ°
hnK㏑
gF打
”!k、Up㏑●nthattheC㏑
而se●eUpl。,slethargv㏑IroSponangt。th.westerncha!lengeg.”Ⅱs●t。rep●破edbattles㏑
wⅢchChinawasalwaysdefeated,andthat,undcrsu●hclcumstances,Ch㏑
awaS
reluctant toabSorbknowl°dgeabout moderniza伍on.●
9 ButwhydidthoChinese
peUplenot make.c°IoctreSponse?D“cussingthk.matterfrUmth●
㎡
ewpU㏑tof…
etradⅡ。
naloultⅢ.日ndfUre地nre1.t㏑n耴Π山
bank maintainedthatthe!u沁●
lit9between﹉Ch㏑aandtheWest reSultedfIo中
c…
a、lack。funderStand㏒oftheooncopt ofmod可
血2at㏑n.Undoubtedly,“
sargumentca…ansⅣ吧r。nlypart ofthequest㏑n.Aclearerp沁tur●
maybeδ
bta…edifweproc.odfrom thestudyof
the獅
.sepeople、r.sponsetbWesternarms,●
㏑mun北㏑n,tommod北
㏑s●nd
mk山
onafi外t。山eWe就
erners’requestsfUrtheopen㏑名。f打ad加略ports,t田㎡t。H㏕ concess㏑
nsand㏑
demnitios.η
leCh㏑
es.areηoted-fUIb㎡㎎ ethnoo●n竹㏑.UndeIthespell oftk疝bwn
great廿aat㏑
n,the(Ⅲ
nese中er°oontemptuUuso「thingsfUI山興.WhenWest.m
th㏑邵 1水°clocks,watchesandtoydwe工
o㏑
iodu●edint。(1山m,thoCⅢ
nesedospkodt●°
maη
dhadno inten●
。
nofpro●
udngthemthems.lves.W北
hthat
mUntality,Ch㏑afaⅡed﹉toIedLZethelnportanceofscienceandthereforereaoted
slowlyt°
theWorldtrendofIⅡ
odern比a“on.N.vertheless,thesituationchang.dsomewhat when Westerners 缸㎡
Ved㏑
laigenumbersafterthemⅡ
.niIlcte●nthcenturv.﹁′i山advancedshj°sandcannon,‘heyfUrcedChinatUaccept theite1Ⅲ 一s.
N。
tun伍
lthen&dtheUⅢ
nesepeoplebeon toadm北
thatfUre站itⅢ山扑 w°ieSu訂i。
rtUthels.ThiscanbeSeon lo㏑
thefUll°w山略statementsbYTsengKuU.
fanand工iHung.chang.Tsengs㎡
d:
﹉BHta㏑andFrancebUastedoftho叩pe●Urmyoftheish●sandthe
.ffec中en●§Uf山曲 甲nnon.T”㏄ 缸e比amyth二ngsth外w●havenUt
s叩n㏑
●
h一ab…UEe.r叩
canp叩中
asethemafewata∥mean●geth。1●Ufth。m,p●opleinCh㏑
●
wⅢge●accus.。medtU﹉themandwm㎡
°
lUngeIb.astU㏕shed.Mea山
祕田
-Br批ainandFran&ⅢⅢ
no lUigerbe.18.
abi●tUusethemtUdom㏑ateCh㏑a:.s
Lisharedth。same°pin㏑
n:
﹉Ihavebeenab°aidthewar出ipSUftheBritishandFrenchadmialsan●:
一
haveseenthattheicannUnareingeni。usandun二fUrⅡ
、
thelalnmuη
i-“°ηis nn●an.φ.veⅡymade,the士W●●pUnsarebr圯…,andtheitIoops
havea㎡arti田app田tm叩叩dareUrderlV.Theseth㏑gsar.午”amv supe山”t●tho㏄〢Ch二n●.:∴即ervdaYIw拉nand㏑“rua四′
。f比°↑
tUbehumble,tU●earthehumⅡ●at㏑n,andtUlearn oneor tw。secret
﹉‵ methUds●o血 theWest●m●is in thehbpethat﹉we…呼 ㏑“中㏄
。
ur :
kn。wledge.叩
η伍
:wUrdsUfTsengandⅡ
clearlvind沁atethattheCh。
eseleadersatthat u血ealreadvr°山 2edtheSup●●o血y“fUre地nthing一M㏄。。
ver;theYpurchased
f。re地n-guisahdcannδntUsuppred●th°Taip㎡r°
●
elⅢon.Itwa§b●causo ofthe土﹉
increaSed一knUwledge°
fWesteih”
㏒
sthatthoylater pro㏑Ut.dthoself.Stfeng. th°n㏒
M。vement.‘
﹉
Letus nowtake色lU。
kattheCh㏑
ese●eUpl↙sattitudetUWardfUfe地nc。m-㎡d山妙 色δ°
ds.WhehfUre㎏
nm°
rchants mstarrived㏑a㏑
眨,theywerchUtw。
l
﹉
co㏑cd.Chinadidn°tUpen tra山ngports tofUie地與erSㄐntⅡthUyWerefUrcedt。by fUre地n troδps::EvenafterthetreatypUrtswereopened;北WassUm。位m● thatfUr-e地
n㏑
erchan“werenUtalloW叩
tUd。buSiness㏑the●∥es.ⅢkeventuaⅢymade
conΠ北tsbetwe°
nCh㏑
esoandfUre珀ners.naV。mable.s.Butgradua1lY,theCⅢ●●sepeUple&㏄
o咇
●thatfUre㎏nc°mmod比
iesworesuperbitUthUsc﹉:produced㏑Ch㏑aahd﹉
theybogantUⅢ
so mat”es instead。fnints,andtUusefUre㎏
n-Inadey田●
6andcloth㏑
●t°adofind站
enous ones.Ihshort,theyftStr句。ctedfUre屯
n
∞血mod比㏑●befU坤Π
nallvacceptingthem.s.
﹉∴Fore㎏n印issbnar㏑salsUhad色great㏑Πueiceon th°modam也atbnofCh㏑a:
ChinesepeUpleW申eashostilet°fUfe㎏n mi●sb●ar跆shStheyWer°tUfUre珀n
merch●nts.1Π° ChriStianrel㎏i°nwascr北沁iZ●dassuporStiti。usaηdheterUdo文:
。
eoplethU●
ghtthat itwas-medat“
d屯。
ng°●tpe°plσscy●.balls nn●hearts,
em.sculat㏑
g㏑
fants,andr°mU曲
㎎ t㏒W。mbsUfpregnantwo㏑
en′切Asa
…沁ult,ther●wis●﹉s竹°ngan伍<㏑Hst㏑
nsentimentamongthe●
oUple:tnⅢs studyUfatt北ㄐdest。”
ardChⅡ
sti色n北y; Lu Sh血-ch’二angpoI∥
edbutthattheCh…
escpeUp㏑disli幹d﹉
e㏑
忘
ti…it99“
bec卻用
etheieiψishnYd如
geementbctw°
enConfu°㏑
nandChHst㏑
ndoctiihesbut si…plybec叩
SetheYhated“
怕umter一feience..● thatsent土nentwasanatl1raloutc°
me。
fCh出
n’s丘玲tdkaS竹。uSen一
. 16> .
。°unterwiththeWeS●
,theUpmmwar.
ActuallY,fUre地●mis蕊onaΠes℃
UnductodmanyotheractⅣ
it㏑s㏑ad血t㏑ntU
thepreachi吧°fChrisuhn北
y.TheSeihcludedoduca1onandphⅡ
anthropy,andthein甘°duct㏑n°ftechnologV色ndWeStern medicalsci●,ce.Be茁des,thrUug●thel
cUntactWithmiss㏑n缸ieS,怕aders o●therefUrm mUvementsabsUrb°dmanynew measw㏑chwereofbeheΠtto thelrefUrm prUgram. ﹉
Th。W狂Saga㏑stfUr●●gn inva“訂S●
adbUthapUsit㏑
andnegat㏑
㏑pt●t°n
Chin〞
smUd㏄
n也飩㏑n.Inthep㏕
UdfrUml8的
– 。19。
。
,Chinawas。
°nst●ntl9fUrcedtU色ghtaga㏑stfUro站n inva斑ons●
nd㏑
cachofthesebattles,a山血 ψasdefeated.πIⅡs rosultedin°
。ncessiohsoft㏕toiy,theopen山π呂。ftreatyportS,aηd
thepayment ofindem…●esundertheunequal troatk冷.
TheWorSt iosult ofth●un°qllal treales,-asthatC∥
nahadtUb●
arthepayment ofenormo.sihd●”n北ies.Afterthe19UUBUxcrRebel1㏑
nfUrexa㏑
plo, η㏑ 耳U㏑
-P。werAll㏑dF。fcesdomande●anih°●㏑㎡t9Uf45UpU°
,UUUtaels-㏑
otherwδids,atleast o●
。t●
elfUr.achmemberofthepopula●
on of41U,U。UpUU,
when onetaelwaSabUutthoi●
comethatano=anarv由
orkeroamedfUrtwo
months’
wofkjAS北
w●s to°:large.sumfUrC●
㏑.t°paYat once,she。
na班y
ageedto paym in ihstal…°nts oVcraper㏑
dUf39years,啪
thatotalpa9㏑ent anclud出名inteIest)ofupt。982pUUpUUtaels.W北
hthcchange㏑
theihtem.. 伍onal sluatbnduringth●Γ士stWUrldWafC虹
h●stoppedpaVm.ntafterdh°ha●pam‘6U;UUU,UUUtaels,94buttheCh㏑eseeconUmywasaIr●.dy●xhaust°d:
UndertheheaWpressⅢ
eoft一at indemnly,eachproⅥncowas●skedtUhelp ra二soanaverage°fUVerlpUUpoUtiel9.ThUamountas㎡
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ch°w9.Asthea,nualgUveinment ie▼enueof●
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ncesbegant。Π叩b●dgetd●●斑s.ηⅢswasespec二allyseIiUusaftefl9U5,-hentheconstituti°nalrefUrIns ledto increased
goγer●mente文penditl1re.6β
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. 4,89U t,Ull l,533 ﹉2U5,782
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θF工/Jtψ
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了●●U6(㏑
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npub.
上與edl,1Zohot。
.UffsetcUpY…1973),p.129.F°rth°㏑de血n北yse●﹀oh.ch菇
nWahg,工
9a刀′Γ砡a〞bπ加力ηpa咄′Ch工力a,p.63.
TheB°xerInde血nityis themost s咖Π
cantamUngmanVexamplcs.Hadthe
sumpamfUrtheBUxerIndemnitybeenus°
dfUrnationalcUnsiuct㏑n,Ch…
awouldhave been more developedthan北 iStoday. FIom th. caseoftheBoXei
Indeinnly,thedamage●
。
n.byimper㏑
l你tSto thedeVelopⅡ名c°untH.scanbo
clearlyse.n.Ufcourse,北cannotbeden㏑dthattheconces由onUfteI北
orVandopen㏒
of 2:-419-. 6t1 -419-.
treatvpUrtsalsU出ave.sUm●impetustUC㏑na一s modefnizat㏑n:FUrexample,㏑th°
iftyy●rsaft●r﹉Ho血
gKUngwascededtoBHt田
㏑﹉andShaη望Ⅵi。p°ne°.sa廿eat9p°rt;th°twUplaceSW北nessedan industr㏑landcomInerd㏕develo●
mentequaltU
thatofWestern﹉c北㏑S:ImpIessedw北htheordeⅡ
inessamdprosp田北yof中
estemc…Ⅱ北at㏑
nd㏕
ngthelⅥ
sms tUtheSotwo places,KhngYu-wdandotherswere
fullYcon”㏑ccdthat北”平
nUtw北
houtreasUnthat:theWestwasSUS竹
ong.ηi. meaals。cametUthemthatChinaShouldfUⅡ
owtheWestern pattern㏑ma㎞
㏒refUrms.Shangh缸att山
nodah…
ecUn。mlcgrowthrateafter北was opcnedasa
ieatypUft,●
ndThomasRawsHis justiΠ
°dindayingthatShangh㎡wastheleaderofC㎞
’seconoⅡicInodern也ation.VⅡ.
Aieㄐ匕
wofCh㏑
a’scultl1ralbackgroundandⅡnancialconditionoheIpsus tounderstand that there were both fUrces proILUtihg and obstmcting Chih由’d
m。der何zat㏑
ndⅡ
ve㏑
lseaflVstages.GeneiallvspeaⅡng,traat㏑nalConfuchh
dUct」n°containdbothofthesefactors.Int玒elhteChlngp引6°d,the(】une.o ol1●
wereprUfUundlv二
nnuencedbyC°
nfudanmeUlUgv.Th°
se.dvUcating:mddern. 血… nsupp。rtedthelra●onalewlthoXa㏑
plesfrom theConfuc㏑nclas茁os;butso didthosewho opposed】
moderni2a〢bh. AstheConfuc㏑
nkIncallsfUiself-cultⅡ呔㏑
n,s6the平
Udem比
㏒ eⅢt●inCh㏑
aw●
owero
moStlyCo,fudahiaa-t㏑nalistswereinevitablyrestrictedbyt㏑
sdoaF…
eandls t塘∥sU。㏑lasc”lin.;UndersuchclcumStan●
.s,北was mpo,s”
let●realLe anv large〝cale sUc㏑lrefUrms.
FromaneconoⅡ
Ⅱt point of中ieW,丘wouldnothavebeen▼
ayd」
ficultfUIChinat°竹ahSfU山m itselffromanagr沁ultural sodetyint。an ind●si㏑上zedbne,
asC㏑naisafertⅡecountryrichihnaturairesUwces.Neverth°less,theag丸uItur廚l
sㄐrpluswas°
onsumedisar●
sultbft。erapidincreasein popu1●tionandincess茁ntnaturaldiasters.Be斑des,thepolicV°
f咖
tt.xaIohandthepayment oFenor_
moussums inwar㏑
demnliescausedsqHousΠ
hancial probleInsfUrtheCh二hescgUVernme…
.Inad山
t㏑n to thef㏑anc㏑lfactors,!heManchugUvernmeη
t、㏑-eptitud°㏑handl㏑
gthem。
derⅡZatiohprogra㏑alsofesΨlte●㏑slUwprogre.s.Inshort,sUmefUrceswereworkng㏑
faVUiofmodeml2ati°nandsU㏑
e由●iewUrⅡngaga㏑st丘㏑theearlYstage.η㏑inteiict㏑i:o●
thesetwUknds6ffUrc●
soffsetpart oftheeffUrts ofthemoder血Zers.Had:members ofth●moder㎡z…g
ellelikeⅡHun針chan色a,dothers not mctw北hstrongie豆sta出尤
frUmthecUh.
. 22 .
Sewa∥口
eshhdnotbeenres竹
ict°dbytradm㏑
nalc。nfuc㏑nvalues,that︳modern-妮at㏑
neffUrtswouldhavebfUughtab°
utach㏕
omentsgdngbeYUndordnance
pfUdu“㏑n.Were北
nUtfUrUverp°pulat㏑●;therewouldhavebeenagreater
啪 cu㏑uIalsⅢp…savaⅡablofUr induSi㏑ldevelopment.WerelnUtfUrofthe
pUⅢcyof1珀
比ta本at㏑nandtheonormouswar㏑
dem㎡
ties,theManchugUvem.
ment︺ouIdha▼ebeenablo tUaccl1mulatemorecap。alfUruse㏑甲 。dern也atibn.
-417-. 23 -417-.
NUTES
一一
.ChungIChang,mεa加“εφ 刀工r99。β工翃 θJUπ幼 ε〞RU口ε加 Ⅲ 力εtεθπ幼 石 θπ〞”ㄉ a加菡ε
SUεㄉ9,,(Seattle:UηⅣer斑tyofWa血ngtonPIess;1955);Ping-︴HU,協θZ,a曲erUr‘〞tceJJ 加r〞′ε石〞C乃加a:⊿〞 εε竹 好 助 ε滋J拓Ut〃工●,,,竹6●-‘9〃(NewYUrk:JUhnWⅡey#S°ns,
1%Φ.
2.WUlfgangFranke,田εRerU/〞翃 〞4DU拉ㄉ力Ur油ε ”“加”磁:a加“oE印〃加“bπ
S,,J〞〃φ陌ipelRa㏑b叩βridge,1993,Iep血〕
3.ChangP℃ng乎uan,工ㄌεcU力69J′田〞ㄉ刀a妳9Ja刀dt乃εI9JIRεvUJt〞ㄉ刀(Taip由;TheIhstmute°f
MUderηHistU呼UftheAcade㏑ia&山a,1983eat㏑n,,pp.26.●,U.
4.ArthurW由如t“Values;RUles,andPerson山伍es,”㏑ CU,,r,ε滋′n羽炤〞a〞而外,ed:姆扣thui
中啷 tan●DenisTWitchett°tanfUr出StanfU工dUni托rmtVPress,I962),pp.3.23. 5.Ma呼wr珀h6,η比 切f〞S〞刀〞Urψ…θJεcU●.,er.,●〞山π mεrㄅ,.g-奶曲R你f●〞〞切 ,iεω
-Iθ〞U怡wYUrkAtheneum,196Φ.
6.Wm.TheodoredeB田9,et.毗肋 εV砌ㄉ工φ昭 Ur仲?《′η即ε〞力加〃 仰
ew”
rk一c。”mbiaU㎡Ve邱渱yPress,1975》ThUmasMet2ger,母apt rrU〞Prε〞m〞e9.6●怕
WYUrkCUlum㏑
a′ Un㏑r由VPIeSs,1977).
7.ThomasMetzgerexp中SSedt㏑s。pin°n inat●kwi山theauthUr二nthespIingofl983.
8.RobertDernberger,‘叮heRoleoftheFor°塘neIs㏑CⅡna’sEconom㏑Development,lB●U一
1,┤p,”in﹉ε物o磁ㄅ πU&〞Ec.〞U〃ˊ 加 山砝吋U”a口乃 沿〞 επI9e,ed.byD〢ghtPe虫inS
φtanfUrd:StinfUrdUn山eI蕊tVPress,1979,pp.19.47.
9.CⅢnγaU.c…,‘TheC。nfu°anEth●andEc°nom㏑DevelUp㏑eηtARe”ewUfW●beI’s
TheUrY,’’t泛方乃U拓U9●r乃J,,,NU.26(AuBust l98S9.
lU.DeanC.Tipps,“M。dernlzat㏑nTheUry●ndtheStudyofNaⅡonalSodet始
gACHt沁
alPerspect二ve’’;‘ㄌ〃u田好′99eSt“〞〞〢 刀∫φε〞r,,‘〞〞田J工.〞
,VUl:lS,N.2Ⅳ
ai山I97a9jH.R由
nhardBend*,叮中山t㏑handMUdernizat㏑nRecUn“dereJ∴ㄌ●●,VU1.9,Nd.3,(i967), pp.292-346.12.⊿刀仰 ”,BUUkXIⅡ,Tsze︴u,s●eJames㏑gge,ηεFp..rBUU妳,pp.266η67.
13.Mθ〞ε初J;B°UkIⅡ,TangWanKungσbrtI),seeLegge,p.239. ﹉
14.乃女l,pp.2β外24U.
15.⊿〞〞哦 B。
。
kXV,W°
ⅡngKung,seeLegge,p.299.16.砌ㄉπε〞‘,9ookVⅡ,T缸●Sin(PartI9,see︼吧g.,p.474.
!7.拓銘d妳,B°°kI;K㏑gH“UfⅢang,seeL毛ge,p.12,. 18.Menεf2.,,B。okVⅡ,小血 S二nCaItI),s●eL把ge,p.464一
19.r乃εC′銘〞t銘′刀加π←See㏑gge,pp.β79381.
2U.4π〞εε你,B。°
kXV,W斑
ㄐngKung,se●Legge,p.3U3.21.⊿刀aㄉ●●J,B°okIV,LeJ㏑;seeLgge,p.168.﹉
22.4πaㄉε札 BUUkVⅡ,ShuR,seeL●gg●,p.2U7.
23.′πa厖ε符,B°UkVI,γungYey,seel£gge,p.188.
24.⊿′t〞εrJ,B°
。kVⅡ.Shu只,seeLegBe,p.2UU. 外.⊿,..跆ε你,B°°kI〤,Tsz°Ha●,seeLegge,p.216.
. 24 .
巧
.WangAn-屾
,叭
RepVtUTsenBⅡ
即 ng”,乙加-cn切刀 乃∫9●刀6乃ε刀g山
o伸
” 跑 千切9●g K竹πedition),V°1.92.η:LuPaU{h,ien,a竹翅9J.9”痛 〞竹 ●乃加 σ 如 由 KuanWenB°°kCUmpany,1978),p.
33玩HuangC血lchieh,一Ⅲ ●DevelUpme血UftheCUnfuciahId。dU即Un盹批eUusnesj
andProntBofUr●th各Ch’㏑ Dynadtv,”apaper presented.nJulv27,1984,attheSumIner
SVmpos㏑㎡ °nthec㎞eseIdeUl°g㏑alHistUrvspUnsUr。dbytheAcademiaSinLa㏑TⅢpd. 28.CheigKuan.v㏑g,J比9●g1乃曲 ”′9ε刀 °eWandsupplementede山t㏑n,TalpelTheSt●dent
Bo°kSt。了°,1’‘5);●.25.
29.WaηgTao,γΠen.faφartI9一,㏑T●U9”a力加ε刀︴“”〢-Pㄉ方fShangh茁:上891),VU1.1,p.1°.
3U.W加屯TaU,t℃m∥-sheng︴”hㄗ『,Uu㎡r”vU1.ll,p.l1.
31.H山hFu.ch’eng,..CiUu.Yang…’ui∴加 幼 略 〃 山 勿 π.c%9σ節 由 HuawenBUUkCUm.
panV,1971),VU1.l,p.44U.
笓.PaU-ch血,ab“-p.η9.w“﹏ 曲 栩UσheRe唱nUfEm“rUrT’ung-ch的●a…lWenh缸B。°k.
C●mpanY,1971),VU1.47,pp.?4-25. 33. 乃 戈i;VU1.48,pp.lU-12. 34:SuηKu卻吧 。 e,協刀-ε乃︴磁 翃 切 刀 一
切濨 刀 功㎡功翅 π 幽θ昭 ︴仍〞(Ta”elT茁wanCommerc二出
PI●ss,198?>
“.ChangP℃ng,uan,田ε 仍9..9竹t“bm.竹” ●99d山6i9iI水〞U〞” 九 .P.εσ〞.一changP’en士
Yuan,乙如昭 a9…ㄅU刀〃扭 竹田U山ε略 p”加 σ aΦ.lSh㏑Hu°Publ二sh二吧 H°u由,reed二ted
in1981),p●.42-S8.
3aⅡng.uH。,s〞“.jeJU刀比tPUP”磁 tㄉ九 ●rc〞田a,fθ‘εI9JJφa㎡bridg●,MassiHarVard
UnⅣer㎡tVPresS,19599,pp.25名5.
j9.協j〞.;DW地htPe虫㏑ s,⊿『
。a〞9.●〞J。e,,‘
J●P加加 〞… ao9,.,iJ鋁i%εC㏑cagU:Aldine,
:1969).
38.MarkEⅣin,”比 屁 〞〞rη●r而ε
a…
εJε昆j〞φianfUr出StanfUr°●nⅣe↑ityPress,1973),pp.285-316.
39.Y。h-。
htnW㏑
g,西羽t%’
atㄉ刀切f〞′ε′加JC乃9刀a,I”θ-I9fi(Cambridge;Mass一HaiVard Uη”er缸tyPress,1973),pp.llU-llS.如.Chung︴Ch●培,幼εi〞c.〞εUr幼εaJ化肥 茈 刀●r99(Seattle:Un”ersitVUfWasⅡngt。nPress:
1962),pp.2?6-297.
41.ThUmaSKennedV,mε⊿r〃JUrK加卬卯t〃羽b磁翔 9犯t油田加 油 εa9〞磁U′而 翃 “ f9●〞妳rF,9,
Iβ6。i●●J(B°uldγ,CUlUrado:WestViewPr●S飢197S9,pp.15牛155;WeⅢngt°nK.K.Chan, 跖 舒C磁兇弼 」比 刀磁 ′工刀
。
a祤拓U&′rE,,iεrPriε加 乙t紹a切ga…a㏄.η● ㎡ge,Ma.si
H6rvardΨnive‘缸tyPreSs,1979),p.9U.
佗.a羽mg我的 乃∫工ε刀.r●m磁t工 〞 切,︴〞a.山 加 σ a”●i:Academia啟nica》HupehPrUvmce
°ySuYtn.feng,1981),P●.926η2β;shantungPrUv㏑ceφycHangYifa,198砂,Pp.341
377;Fuk㏑n£hekang玎aiwanAIea(byⅡKuU.c∵i,1982),pp.399.482;Hu呼nProvincc (byChangP●ng.vuan,1983),pp.9βl-253;K抎ngsuP:UⅥnce(byW●ngShu-hu缸,198°,
pp.3U6-315.
43. Chung-liChang,T乃θf9.cU〞θUrt乃εCh工刀t6εUt刀ir,’,pp:326.327.
研.AccUrdingtUW田tW.RUstUw,thea甲UuntUfinve就mentatbUththe㏑比ialStageandthe
maturepeⅡUdwaslUperceht.See㏑sboUk砒S翅gεsUrEcU刀U〃96GrUw〞乃 ●
。ndUn: