Intercultural communication between Local and International Students in Taiwan

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(1)Intercultural Communication between Local and International Students in Taiwan. by. Monique Sharece Yearwood. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of. MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: Wei-Wen Chang, Ph. D National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan June, 2012.

(2) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT “No duty is more urgent than that of returning thanks”.--Saint Ambrose. As I draw near the close of another chapter of my life, I am greatly indebted to many people, who have helped me along the way. First, I thank God for giving me the strength, courage, determination, and health to pursue my studies in Taiwan. Secondly, I send a sincere thank you to my family. Thanks mom for your unconditional love and never ending support. I would be nothing without you. Sharret and Fitzroy, thank you for believing in me, even when I did not believe in myself. You are good role models for me to follow. Thank you to my niece Shajay, whose constant phone calls of ―I love you‖ kept me going, when I was at my lowest. Khole and Holly you are my reason for my constant hard work. Karris, thank you for your patience with me, while pursuing my studies abroad. Next, I extend a sincere thank you to the international and Taiwanese students alike, who participated in my research. This research would not be possible without you, and for that I will forever be grateful. I cannot go without saying thank you to my dear friend and classmate, Khulan. You were my motivation, when I felt like my efforts were futile. I will always hold you dear to my heart. I could not have asked to meet a better friend. Thank you~~always and forever. Finally, I am extremely privileged to have completed my graduate studies, under the supervision of Dr. Vera Chang. Thank you for introducing me to the world of intercultural communication, which this thesis is based on. Thank you for all your insight and comments into my thesis, over the past year. Thank you for further opportunities to conduct qualitative research and publish articles. Thank you for your patience, while working with me under major time constraints. You are an amazing professor, and motivator. I also extend a sincere thank you to my committee members, Dr. Pai-Po Lee and Dr. Rosa Yeh for their mentorship..

(3) ABSTRACT This research examined the intercultural communication between local Taiwanese and international students. The focal point was to examine if the objectives of the government of Taiwan, Taiwanese scholarship donors, and Taiwanese universities that host international students were achieved in terms of the internationalization of Taiwanese universities and fostering the interaction of local and foreign students. International educational exchange allows foreign students and host country nationals, alike, to gain intercultural competence, which can improve intergroup and international relations. However, notable differences in language, cultural norms, and patterns of behavior may lead to communication barriers and difficulties in interaction between domestic and foreign students. Through an investigation of the intercultural relationship, between local and international students, the researcher examined the intercultural communication experience, of international and Taiwanese students, and the difficulties faced and strategies employed by those students studying in a culturally diverse environment. In this study, Contact theory, Espoused theory and Theory in use were used as the theoretical framework to analyze the behavior, of the groups involved. Local as well as international students were selected as the main participants of the study. Qualitative techniques were the main method of inquiry. Data collection consisted of 17 in depth interviews and 4 questionnaires with open-ended questions (a total of 10 local Taiwanese and 11 international students) as well as document review. Findings revealed that most of the experience shared between the two groups was quite different. Contact took place, between the groups; however, the amount of contact and what actually took place within those contact periods varied. It was also revealed that students acted contrary to their beliefs in termsof intercultural interaction. Key words: intercultural communication, host country nationals, foreign student. I.

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(5) TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................... I TABLE OF CONTENTS ..............................................................................III LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................... V LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................... VII CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................1 Background of the Study ................................................................................................. 1 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................ 5 Purposes of the Study ...................................................................................................... 7 Questions of the Study .................................................................................................... 8 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................ 8 Definition of Terms ......................................................................................................... 9. CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................11 Intercultural Communication ........................................................................................ 11 Intercultural Communication of Students ..................................................................... 13 Improving Intercultural Communication ...................................................................... 18 Difficulties in Intercultural Communication ................................................................. 20 Effective Intercultural Communication ......................................................................... 24 Espoused Theory and Theory in Use ............................................................................ 27 Contact Theory .............................................................................................................. 28. CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODS .....................................................31 Research Approaches .................................................................................................... 31 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................. 32 Research Participants .................................................................................................... 34 Data Collection .............................................................................................................. 39 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................ 41 Research Procedure ....................................................................................................... 42. CHAPTER IV. FINDINGS AND DISSCUSSIONS ....................................45 Intercultural Communication Experience ..................................................................... 46 III.

(6) Difficulties and Strategies ............................................................................................. 51 Discussions .................................................................................................................... 56 Espoused Theory and Theory in Use ............................................................................ 59. CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...............61 Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 61 Recommendations ......................................................................................................... 63 Limitations of the Study ................................................................................................ 65 Suggestions for Further Studies .................................................................................... 66. REFERENCES ..............................................................................................67 APPENDIX A: COVER LETTER ................................................................75 APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ................................................77. IV.

(7) LIST OF TABLES. Table 2.1 Definition of Intercultural Communication………………………………………….12 Table 3.1 Background of Interviewees (International Students)…………………………….....35 Table 3.2 Background of Interviewees (Taiwanese Students)…………………………….…....37 Table 4.1 Summary of the Questions……………………………………………………..…….54. V.

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(9) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1 Research Procedures………………………………………………………………....44 Figure 4.1 Research Findings……………………………………………………………………45. VII.

(10) CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION The purpose of this first chapter is to introduce the background of the study, the purpose of the study, the research questions, and the study‘s significance. Additionally, definitions, of the various terms, utilized, throughout the study, are provided in this chapter.. Background of the Study Seneca, one of Rome‘s most renowned Stoic philosophers, once said, ―As the soil, however rich it may be, cannot be productive without cultivation, so the mind, without culture, can never produce good fruit‖ (as cited in Labonte, 2011, p.13). Seneca suggests that without labor, even the best, of crops, can never be cultivated; likewise, without culture, the mind can never fully develop. Culture is ever present in all societies. Evidently, all humans need to be aware of culture and the significance it plays in their overall well-being. Culture is a broad term, which has been used, for centuries. Throughout the years, the meaning, of the term, has evolved quite tremendously. Culture was once referred to as ―Tending the soil,‖ and then ―Refinement of mind, taste, and manners‖. Today, according to anthropologist Clifford Geertz, culture is ―The fabric of meaning in terms of which human beings interpret their experience and guide their action,‖ and that culture is an ordered system of meaning and of symbols in terms of which social interaction takes place‖ (Geertz, 1973, p.3). Hofstede and Hofstede (2005) provide an often cited text, where they define culture as ―The collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category, of people, from others‖ (p. 4). Today, when culture is spoken of, it is used to describe a set of shared beliefs, customs, and symbols belonging to a particular group of people. Thus, an action is not cultural, unless it is common among a group. By now, it is no secret that the world is becoming increasingly global. Clearly, the exchange of resources and various goods, from one country to another, requires human. 1.

(11) interaction. People from diverse echelons of society, cultures, and countries, interact with each other, in the exchange process. Zhao & Wildermeersch (2008) state, ―Internationalization is one of the most important and fast growing driving forces for higher education in the new century‖ (p.2). They believe that by incorporating an intercultural/international approach into the teaching and other functions of the institution then the entire environment of the institution shifts to that of an international one whereby it is aligned with international protocols, and its national as well as international standards are strengthened. Thus, it is evident that schools are welcoming internationalization, because of the many benefits it offers them. More and more universities worldwide are seeking accreditation, for this puts them on the international forefront, and they are able to build their reputation, as a world renowned institution and recruit international students. Perhaps the main reason, though, for recruiting international students, is to foster cross cultural understanding. Still, it must be noted that the internationalization, of higher education, does not guarantee positive intercultural interaction. It seems reasonable to assume that governments and universities alike, from around the world, are promoting cultural diversity in order to equip students with the necessary skills which will enable them to successfully cope in a multicultural society. One such government, which has welcomed a vast majority, of international students, is the government of the United States. Altbach (2004) states, ―With its 586,000 international students, the United States is currently by far the largest host country and home to more than a quarter, of the world‘s foreign students (p.2). It is true that the more international students a university hosts, in its international programs, the more it is recognized for its number of students. However, studies have shown that international students do not just fill seats–they also make significant contributions to the host country‘s overall global competitiveness. In essence, they increase the number of highly skilled people in key disciplines (Altbach, 2004). Although it hosts perhaps the most international students, the United States is not the only country interested in or participating, in the promotion, of international students, at its universities. Ryan (2005) boasts that Australian universities are honored to host students, from diverse educational, social, cultural, and political backgrounds. Such diversity brings about great potential, for learning from all parties, and university policies in and around Australia claim to. 2.

(12) foster a global approach, as a key aspect, to their teaching and research. Curtain University, which is located in Australia, claims to have more than 10, 000 international students enrolled, at their university. The university is said to offer a unique cross-cultural experience, in which students become part of an international network that provides social and academic support, for a lifetime (www.about.curtin.edu.au). Similarly, on the National Taiwan University Office of International Affairs website, it states, ―The immediate goal is to enroll 1,500 plus international degree-seeking students, by 2010‖ (www.ntnu.edu.tw/oia). In an effort to become internationally recognized and accredited, Taiwanese Universities have been offering a number of scholarships as well as study abroad opportunities to citizens of countries around the world. Taiwan‘s official government website states, ―In surveys sponsored by the Ministry of Education, international students cited scholarship availability and academic resources and quality as major factors behind their decision to study in Taiwan. Other reasons included Taiwan‘s rich and colorful culture as well as better job prospects when they return home‖ (www.taiwan.gov.tw). In terms of Taiwanese scholarships offered to international students, two main bodies that offer a significant number of scholarships yearly for foreigners to study in Taiwan are Taiwan ICDF (International Cooperation and Development Fund) and MOFA (Ministry of Foreign Affairs) Taiwan. In January of 2011, the government of St. Lucia posted, on its website, a call for Taiwan ICDF and MOFA scholarship applicants. The post goes as follows, ―The Taiwan Scholarship program, organized by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China (Taiwan), and the ―ICDF Scholarship Program‖ organized by International Cooperation and Development Fund is designed to enhance the educational exchanges between St. Lucia and Taiwan and provide an opportunity for people, who would like to experience a different culture and study abroad for a bachelor‘s master‘s or PhD degree‖ (www.stlucia.gov.lc). When various universities websites whom a vast amount of scholarship recipients are placed at are looked at, its office of international affairs (OIA) claims to offer support for the interaction between locals and foreigners. For example, National Taiwan Normal University OIA office states, ―The OIA is dedicated to increasing the opportunities for students to be in contact. 3.

(13) with other cultures through our academic curricula, study abroad plans, faculty and student exchange programs and international scholars‘ visits on campus‖ (www.oia.ntnu.edu.tw). Thus, it is evident that both universities and the government of Taiwan alike have the interest, of interaction, between international students and locals at the core of their endeavours to host international students, in Taiwan. However, there seems to be a gap in what is hoped for by these agencies and what is actually achieved. Despite the vast amount of literature, on intercultural communication between international students and host country nationals there is little known about the actual contact experience (Ellison & Powers, 1994). The contact hypothesis holds that increase contact of unlike groups leads to positive results in terms of communication and interaction. However, such contact and interaction processes are not well examined in practice, and it is unclear whether such favorable outcomes are always achieved. The Espoused theory holds that there is a divide between what people think and what they actually do. That which people think or claim to believe can be referred to as the espoused theory, and that which they actually do can be referred to as the theory in practice. According to Argyris and Schon (1974), people have mental maps that guide their actions, rather than the theories they explicitly espouse. Hence, they hold certain beliefs, but these mental maps cause them to produce a different behavior. Thus, when faced with a given situation, the theory in action comes up, and people do things that go against what they claim to believe. Alarmingly enough, most people are unaware of this. The reason this is looked at in this study is because many a scholar claim to be proponents of intercultural communication. However, when placed in an intercultural setting, their behavior towards the idea might change. Under the scope of the contact theory, which will be used as the theoretical framework in this study, it is assumed that ethnic prejudice and intergroup tension can be reduced, if people are constantly in contact with one another. Contact is said to be the connecting factor in allowing individuals, who are different, to get to know each other better and in them having tolerance for each other. All this is expected to lead to improved relations between unlike groups (Amir, 1969; Amir & Ben-Ari, 1985; Nesdale & Todd, 1998; Pettigrew & Tropp, 2000). Thus, it is reasonable to state that when intercultural communication is looked at amongst students of different backgrounds, it is often times assumed that students will overcome differences by having constant contact or association with one. 4.

(14) another. Being in a diverse classroom, or any other diverse setting, positive intergroup contact is almost always expected to take place. In this study, uncovering concrete information, not just assumptions, about the frequency and amount of contact between the two groups can provide tremendous insight into the everyday interactions and nature of intercultural contact of international and host students. In addition, readers will better understand the type of intercultural contact that is occurring between the groups, of students, as opposed to accepting that ideal contact that is presumed to be happening. Although ideal contact is often presumed to be happening, among people from different cultures, the nature of intercultural interactional contact is yet to be fully examined. Thus, there is no specific detail as to what occurs during intercultural interaction (Halualani et al, 2003, p.5). Undoubtedly then, in the case of Taiwan, a large amount of international students enrol in classes, but the extent to which intercultural communication or interaction, on a whole, takes place between the local Taiwanese students and international students seem to be unknown. Thus, the lack of knowledge in regards to the interaction between the two groups creates a loss of productivity. This study then explored the extent of the interaction between local Taiwanese students and international students, particularly in terms of the intercultural communication experiences of international and Taiwanese students studying in a culturally diverse environment in Taiwan as well as the difficulties faced and the strategies employed in the process of intercultural communication.. Statement of the Problem When the fact that various universities from around the world are increasingly recruiting international students is taken into account, it must be acknowledged that these universities need to become multicultural in more than one respect. Thus, they need to be open, welcoming, and especially tolerant, to students coming from different cultures (Little, 2008). Such universities must include a well-rounded learning approach, in the courses offered and the different programs. Multicultural universities also need to create a social as well as academic environment, whereby students from diverse cultures can learn together (Little, 2008). 5.

(15) The multicultural university is a place where students of various cultural backgrounds are presumed to interact, with one another (Halualani, Chitgopekar, Morrison, & Dodge, 2004; Jackman & Crane 1986). Such a context has been identified as one, of the last settings that house individuals, from diverse backgrounds, together in one place. Multicultural universities should foster a spirit of inclusivity and ensure that students coming from diverse backgrounds are accepted and treated fairly. However, despite the efforts of the multicultural university to integrate international students into its curricula and make its curricula an international one the international students still face difficulties adjusting to the norms prescribed by the host country university and the host country nationals. Evidently, the internationalization of higher education does not particularly result in interculturality (Bash, 2009). Celis & Wildemeersch (2002, p. 5) state, ―Once international students enter the university, ‗gaps‘ between them and local students are likely to be highlighted‖. International students are required to adjust to not only the academic standards but also the cultural assumptions of the vast majority in order to excel, yet the practices of the institutions are not expected to change (Celis & Wildemeersch, 2002). It is critical, however, for international students to not only adapt to the host country‘s way of life and education system; they should also take an altogether different approach and try to broaden their way of thinking and become tolerant of different points of view. This can only take place through interaction with their host country counterparts. Thus, a huge importance should be put on contact between local and international students. Since international students come in contact with their local classmates on a daily basis, this is a good starting ground, for them to begin to submerge themselves, in their new environment. Under the scope of the contact hypothesis, it is believed that more and more personal contact between the members of different ethnic or racial groups will reduce prejudiced opinions and discriminatory actions between the two. These contact situations can occur in one of two ways. It can be planned, whereby groups are somewhat forced to interact with each other, or it can be unplanned, whereby spontaneous interaction takes place. The Psychology of Ethnic and Cultural Conflict holds that the more interaction people from different culture, language, beliefs, skin color, or nationality have then the least likely they are to have negative stereotypes of each other. Thus, intergroup relations are improved and people become more willing to treat each 6.

(16) other as equals (Forbes, 1997). In essence, more contact results in less cultural conflicts. It is a given, however, that this type of interaction, which is desired between the parties involved, does not always take place. In regards to intercultural communication of students of different backgrounds or local and international students, it is a common assumption that the more the students of these different groups interact, the more they are expected to get along. Being in a diverse classroom, or any other diverse setting, positive intergroup contact is almost always expected to take place, whether it is planned by professors demanding that the two groups work together or unplanned whereby the two groups take the initiative to communicate with each other.. Purposes of the Study This study aimed to uncover information about the frequency and amount of contact taking place between international and local Taiwanese students and provide tremendous insight into the everyday interactions and nature of intercultural contact of international and host students in Taiwan. Additionally, readers will be geared with the necessary information to better understand the intercultural contact that is actually occurring between the groups of instead of merely speculating. Again, although ideal contact is often presumed to be happening among people from different cultures, the nature of intercultural interactional contact is yet to be fully examined. The primary purpose of this study was to examine the intercultural interaction, between local Taiwanese students and international students. This purpose was realized through interviewing both local students and international students alike as well as reviewing relevant documents on the subject matter. It also aimed to examine the extent to which the objectives of the government of Taiwan and the previously mentioned scholarship donors are achieved in terms of internationalization of Taiwanese universities and fostering the interaction of local and foreign students. Additionally, the study also aimed to shed light on the difficulties faced by both local Taiwanese and international students in terms of studying in a culturally diverse environment.. 7.

(17) Questions of the Study Based on the intention to examine the interaction between local Taiwanese and international students, this research aimed to answer the following questions: 1. What are the intercultural communication experiences of Taiwanese and international students studying in a culturally diverse environment, in Taiwan?. 2. What are the difficulties faced and the strategies employed in the process of intercultural communication by students studying in a culturally diverse environment?. Significance of the Study In the past, it was said that most research regarding international students studying abroad had been conducted from the viewpoint of the acculturating group (e.g. international students) with little information about the perspectives of host students or those within the receiving community (Ward, 2001). Evidently, studies were always being conducted on international students studying abroad or adjusting to life abroad but seldom studies would take the local students‘ reaction to their international classmates or foreign counterparts into account. Similarly, studies examining intercultural communications between international and host country students have been conducted, many times before. However, most of them have been carried out in a western setting and it is known that western practices may not be applied to the East, because of large cultural differences. Hence, there existed and still exist to some degree a shortage of research done regarding host country nationals reaction to international students, studying amongst them, despite the fact that in recent years significant attention has being drawn to intergroup relations and multicultural attitudes. There also exist a shortage of research done in the East exploring intercultural communication, of international and host country students. Thus, this study will contribute to the existing body of researches conducted on international students studying abroad as well provide 8.

(18) new knowledge to the limited studies on intercultural communication between local Taiwanese students and international students. Unlike previous studies, which failed to take both the acculturating and the host country groups into consideration, both groups will be equally weighed here, as this study will explore the interaction between both international and local Taiwanese students (Taiwan being the eastern country of interest). Furthermore, the findings of the study revealed aspects of intercultural communication that the Government of Taiwan as well as Taiwan ICDF, MOFA and universities within Taiwan, who offer international programs, should take into consideration in regards to internationalizing Taiwanese universities and providing room for cultural exchange.. Definition of Terms Culture Culture is concerned with the development of coherent viewpoints, which bring a cumulative effect to otherwise isolated experiences of a group, making them feel special yet allowing others to have a parallel experience (Veltman, 1997, p.1).. Intercultural Communication Intercultural Communication is a symbolic process in which people from different cultures creates shared meanings (Lustig & Koester, 2003, p. 51). In this study, the term particularly means communication between people from different national cultures. The contact hypothesis in its simplest form argues that the greater the contact between individuals from antagonistic social groups (defined by language, culture, skin color, nationality, etc.), the greater will be the undermining of stereotypes that are the basis for prejudice and discrimination (Forbes, 1997, p.2). The contact hypothesis assumes that prejudice as well as intergroup conflict can be reduced if people are in constant contact with one another, because 9.

(19) this contact will cause them to be better acquainted with each other, thus resulting in improved relations.. International Students According to (UIS, 2009) international students can be defined according to the following characteristics: • Permanent residence: Students can be considered to be mobile students if they are not permanent residents of the host country in which they pursue their studies. • Prior education: Students can be considered to be mobile students, if they obtained the entry qualification, to their current level, of study, in another country. Prior education refers typically to upper secondary education, for students enrolled, in tertiary programs. • Citizenship: Students can be considered to be mobile students if they are not citizens of the host country in which they pursue their studies (commonly referred to as ―foreign students‖).. Host Country Nationals Host Country Nationals is defined as ―Natives of the host country‖ (Baumgartner, 2009, p. 5) For the purpose of this thesis, the term host country nationals include all students, who are born Taiwanese or hold Taiwanese citizenship.. 10.

(20) CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW Having introduced the research, outlined its significance, and state its purposes in chapter one, this chapter provides a thorough review of previous research done in the area of intercultural communication between international students and host students. Such a literature review cannot be exhaustive, for there is always a need to refer to the past to make contributions to the future.. Intercultural Communication It is said that humans‘ first response to any noted difference is usually to avoid it. This can be seen throughout history. When colonizers were unsuccessful in avoiding different people, they tried to convert them. When they could neither avoid nor convert them, they would kill them. However, people do not need to psychically harm others to eliminate them. When a vast majority or anyone who has the upper hand go out of their way to make the lives of the less privileged others miserable in an organization or neighborhood, they also ―kill‖ them, for they cannot flourish and often times, they do not survive (Bennett, 1998). One way to avoid killing anyone because of notably differences is through the understanding of intercultural communication. Intercultural communication is a ―Symbolic process in which people from different cultures creates shared meanings" (Lustig & Koester, 2003, p. 51). It occurs when large and important cultural differences create dissimilar interpretations and expectations about how to communicate competently. Intercultural communication entails face-to-face or person-to-person interaction among human beings. For communication of this magnitude to take place, each participant must view him/herself as being perceived by others. Thus, all participants must see themselves as possibly engaged in communication and capable of giving and receiving feedback. Effective intercultural communication is vital to not only the establishment but also the maintenance of positive intergroup relations. Some main factors that are believed to be critical to intercultural communication competence, for they strongly impact the favorability of intergroup contacts,. 11.

(21) include cultural knowledge and awareness, communication skills, and tolerance for ambiguity (Giles & Johnson, 1981; Gudykunst, 1986; Lustig & Koester, 1996). As has been noted, people of different cultures must find ways to get along, for communication is vital to everyday survival as well as positive intergroup relations. Intercultural communicators must equip themselves with the necessary skills such as cultural awareness and tolerance for the unfamiliar, because they strongly impact the favorability of intergroup contact. Table 2.1 Definition of Intercultural Communication Author and Year. Definition Intercultural. communication. is. the. sharing. of. information on different levels of awareness and control (Allwood, 1985, p. 3) between people with different cultural backgrounds, where different cultural backgrounds include both national cultural differences and differences. which are connected with. participation in the different activities that exist within a national unit. Acts of communication undertaken by individuals (Damen, 1987, p. 23) identified with groups exhibiting intergroup variation in shared social and cultural patterns. These patterns, individually expressed, are the major variables, in the purpose, the manner, and means, by which the communicative process is effected. A symbolic process in which people from different cultures create shared meanings. It occurs when large and (Lustig & Koester, important cultural differences create dissimilar interpretations 2003, p. 49-51) and expectations about how to communicate competently.. 12.

(22) Intercultural Communication of Students Intercultural Communication of International Students Far too many times, international students experience feelings of uncertainty and anxiety about how to integrate into their host society. They often question the deeds that prescribe social norms in their host country and whether or not they are adhering to these norms. It is quite obvious to most visitors to a foreign country, that there are notable differences in various aspects of the way of life such as dress, food, sports, and leisure activities, of that foreign country. Other differences exist in the way they carry themselves, their personality, and interests. In regards to international students all of these differences between the host country and their country of origin, can result in incompatibility among students, intercultural conflicts, and social alienation. According to researchers, having a local or domestically based social support system is significant in the acculturation process and for the successful adaptation of international students into their host culture, because it easies the transition process (Hayes & Lin, 1994; Yeh & Inose, 2003). Berry (1997a, 1997b) emphasizes that the atmosphere as well as the attitude of the host country nationals are important in the acculturation process, for these provide the framework, in which acculturation will span out and relations will be developed. When intercultural communication of internationals is looked at, a lot is left up to the host country to decide if the experience of the international personnel will be a favorable one. If it is the culture of the host country or dominant society to marginalize minority groups, then the minority groups will have less successful relationships and more conflicts in their interactions. There is more than enough evidence, which supports the notion that unfavorable relations with host nationals have drastic consequences for the psychological well-being of international students (Leong & Chou, 1996; Paige, 1990; Pedersen, 1991). According to Ward & RanaDeuba (2000), there are substantial variations in U.S. American students‘ reaction to international students. Some will befriend internationals students, while others will not (Ward, 2001). On the other hand, however, international students may also bring about a number of positive outcomes among members of the host country. Some research proposes that domestic. 13.

(23) students feel curious, interested, and inspired by their foreign guests (Spencer-Rodgers & McGovern, 2002). The literature on international-host student interactions propels the idea that there is generally low interaction between the two groups (Abe, Talbot & Geelhoed, 1998; Burns, 1991; Nesdale & Todd, 1993; Smart, Volet & Ang, 1998; Ward & Masgoret, 2004; Zimmerman, 1995). It is mentioned that while international students would prefer interaction, host students prefer low levels of interaction (Beaver & Tuck, 1998; Nesdale & Todd, 1993; Volet & Ang, 1998). In a research conducted on New Zealand university students, Beaver & Tuck found that the host students and internationals students, alike, desire for cross-cultural interactions dropped from their first year to their second year of undergraduate study, and the two groups tend to go through the rest of their university years unaware of each other‘s existence (Nesdale & Todd, 1993). Studies indicate that international students, who feel a sense of connectedness towards their host country‘s social network, are less likely to experience acculturation related stress but are more likely to adjust successfully (Coelho et al., 1962; Ingman, 2003; Yeh & Inose, 2003). Although it has been proven that close relationships with host country nationals result in enhanced cultural adjustment, many international students tend to maintain close social contact with those of their own kind, i.e., ethnicity or other international students (Constantine & Sue, 2005). There are two main reasons behind such behavior. For one, international students try to create a subculture or support group for themselves, while away in the host country. Since people are accustomed to living with those, who are similar to themselves, this is an effective way for them to share feelings of homesickness, insecurity, loneliness, and so on. Secondly, local students come off as rather passive and most time wait for international students to initiate conversations and friendships. It has been said that trying to make friends with local students is extremely difficult and sometimes disappointing. According to Arthur (2004), ―People here ask how you are, but then keep on walking‖. Thus, it is evident that communication with people from different cultures is commonly associated with adverse emotional responses. Because of various communication obstacles, many individuals may feel uncomfortable and anxious when interacting with culturally different others (Stephan & Stephan, 1985). Although accented speech is at times viewed as socially 14.

(24) attractive, the process of accented speech is somewhat demanding. Thus, members of the dominant group may feel a sense of impatience and frustration when communicating with nonnative speakers of a language (Dodd, 1998). Additionally, non-native speakers of a language are regarded as less favorable than native speakers on a broad spectrum of attributes, including competence and trustworthiness, just to name a few (Edwards, 1982). Group differences in emotional expressivity, non-verbal communication styles, and cultural variations in norms, and customs also add to the confusion of intercultural encounters (Kim, 1986; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). In the long run, constant repeated communication failures and emotionally burdened cultural misunderstandings can eventually give rise to a negative mindset toward the culturally different. Quite a few researchers mentioned the need for intervention to create contact between local and international students (Volet & Ang, 1998; Todd & Nesdale, 1997; Ward, 2001). Lack of such intervention may result in the two groups (local and international students) spending their time at university completely unaware of the other rather than making the most of the opportunities to interact. It must be mentioned that any discussion of the challenges facing international students cannot be generalized, simple because of the fact that international students come from diverse backgrounds and are significantly different (Ryan & Louie 2007). It is evident that in order to promote cross-cultural interactions more information is needed about the barriers facing intercultural friendships and the paths that lead to successful intercultural friendships. In short, the difficulties that international students face while studying abroad can result in intercultural conflicts and social alienation. It has been noted that having a local or domestically based social support system is significant in the acculturation of international students into their host culture, because it soothes the transition process. Despite the number of difficulties involved with integrating local and international students in the same classroom, international students can also help to bring about a number of positive outcomes among members of the host country.. 15.

(25) Intercultural Communication of Chinese Students Many studies have shed light on the intercultural encounters of the Chinese, more specifically of Chinese students studying abroad. These studies have placed tremendous focus on the intercultural communication either between the Chinese students and the students of the host countries, or between Chinese students and students of other cultures in the classroom context. These studies have analyzed difficulties and identified strategies to improve various problems, which have arisen within this context. The following section reviews the literature on intercultural communication of Chinese students. In the context of this review, Chinese is taken to mean any person, who is of ethnic Chinese descent. Liu (2001) discussed the face-saving and politeness strategies used by Chinese students in the American classroom. He pointed out that Chinese students‘ silence in the classroom is ascribed to the Chinese concept of saving face. He also identified the reason why Chinese students save their face by keeping silent in the classroom on the basis of case studies of two Chinese students. In his study, Liu argues that although the silence patterns can sometimes lead to intercultural misunderstandings and stereotyping of Chinese students, this Chinese way of politeness and face strategies should, nonetheless, be treated with intercultural sensitivity and respect. He suggested that Chinese students should develop a new face-saving concept to better interact with other students and to adapt to the new community. In his study, Gao (2000) analyzed the influence of Chinese native language and culture on the verbal and nonverbal communication of Chinese students, when they interact with English native speakers in Australia. Through means of survey and interview with Chinese students in Australia, Gao found that both verbal and nonverbal communication characterizes Chinese cultural values and customs. He mentions that deeply embedded Chinese culture and background affects their way of life in Australia and contributes to the difficulties and miscommunication in their new living environment. Gao specifically discussed some influences caused by differences in social status, approach to academic study, work opportunities, recreation, and verbal and nonverbal communication when Chinese students studies and lives in the new cultural community. He concluded by saying, "Acquisition of a non-native language by an immigrant is culture-orientated; the more you are ready to embrace a culture the more you are tuned to the 16.

(26) language of that culture; and as a result the more you will be competent in that language" (Gao, 2000, p.15). Liao (1996) discussed the importance of second language or L2 cultural knowledge in English Language Teaching (ELT) teaching in China. She first categorized the common types of cultural mistakes made by Chinese students. These include the transfer of speech acts that involves Chinese students using "where are you going" as an initiation for a greeting. This is unacceptability of L2 customs‘ which incorporates the use of politeness and modesty strategies Another is the common contradiction between the English and Chinese value senses, such as violating the teacher‘s privacy. Then, there is the generalization of foreign countries, which could be classified as stereotyping of L2 culture, which can lead to more serious miscommunication difficulties than linguistic mistakes. Within this framework, Liao proposes the inclusion of L2 cultural knowledge in language teaching. This idea of inclusion can be incorporated in three main ways. A well-designed language curriculum can be developed. A proper, cultural, syllabus as well as testing method can also be designed. Changes of modern language can also be reflected. Hence, this will lead to increase awareness of language teaching and keeping up with current trends in society. Research on Chinese students studying in a Western (New Zealand) learning environment was conducted by Holmes (2005). In the study, she revealed the difficulties Chinese students encounter in seeking collaborative relationships with their New Zealand counterparts in seeking help from the general teaching staff and in communicating and learning between their own culture and the culture of the host country. Holmes suggests that Chinese students should try to reframe their primary learning as well as communication style so as to make room for other styles. Holmes also mentions that the Australian local students can also benefit from proper intercultural awareness training, so as to better understand and, therefore, more easily adapt to the different ways of learning and the new cultural environment. Educational institutions can also apply intercultural skills in seeking out ways of assessing Chinese and other international students (Holmes 2005). In another study conducted on Chinese students‘ communicative competence in the University of Canberra in Australia, Liu (2004) investigates how Chinese students "Made the full 17.

(27) use of speaking environment" in Australia to improve their communicative competence (Lou, 2004, p. 24). The study focuses on Chinese students‘ communication experiences with the local Australian students. The relationship between language study and intercultural communication ability is also highlighted. Liu states, "Only one third of Chinese students are actively involved in interactions with Australian students" (Lou, 2004, p. 24). The majority are "inactive or incapable" of communicating with the local students. She suggests that the language teacher‘s intercultural competence should be further improved; "The pedagogy of teaching intercultural communication needs to be updated and implemented" (Liu, 2004, p. 25). As can be seen, many studies have investigated the intercultural encounters of the Chinese students studying abroad. To a large extent, these studies have focused on the intercultural communication either between the Chinese students and the students of the host countries, or between Chinese students and students of other cultures in the classroom context. These studies have analyzed difficulties and identified strategies to improve various problems, which have arisen within this context.. Improving Intercultural Communication Five Core Assumptions of Intercultural Communication According to Toomey (1999) there are five core assumptions, of intercultural communication, which are said to increase the understanding of the intercultural communication processes. 1. Intercultural communication involves varying degrees of cultural group membership differences. When people of different cultures interact with each other, both differences as well as similarities are present between them. In engaging in intercultural communication, they need to develop an understanding of the unique differences that exist between, yet recognize and appreciate the similarities that lie within them. 18.

(28) 2. Intercultural communication involves the simultaneous encoding and decoding of verbal and nonverbal messages in the exchange process. Effectively encoding and decoding messages can lead to shared meaning as well as deep clarity and understanding. Communicators can carefully choose words and actions or behaviors that make others, who are different, feel included and as ease. 3. Many intercultural encounters involve well-meaning clashes. According to Bristin (1993) ―Well–meaning clashes‖ refer to misunderstanding encounters in which people are ―…Behaving properly and in a socially skilled manner according to the norms in their own culture‖. However, behaviors that might be suitable in one culture might be considered improper and ineffective in another. 4. Intercultural communication always takes place in a context. Intercultural communication does not take place independent of time or time. In fact, intercultural communication is always bound to context, that is, patterns of thinking and behavior are always interpreted within an interactive context. In order to gain an in-depth understanding of the intercultural communication process, communicators must observe the link among communication patterns, context, and culture. 5. Intercultural communication always takes place in embedded systems. People are programmed and acculturated into their culture through their family, education, religious, and political systems as well as through their socioeconomic systems. All of these institutions influence their day-to-day life. They are surrounded by people who adhere to similar beliefs and norms. Thus, it is clear that when individuals want to learn about other cultures or groups, they must use different cultural viewfinders so as to see things from their perspective. Toomey (1999) outlined five core assumptions, of intercultural communication, which are said to increase the understanding of the intercultural communication processes. However, intercultural communicators must realize that although these assumptions may be rigidly followed, smooth communication does not always take place. In fact, there are times when quite 19.

(29) the opposite of what is hope for might be achieved, and intercultural communicators might end up in more conflict after adhering to these guidelines.. Difficulties in Intercultural Communication Communicating with people from different cultures can sometimes pose quite a challenge. Differences in culture, to a large extent, can account for the way people act, make decisions, and form opinions. Thus, culture is chief to what people see, how they make sense of what they see, and how they express themselves. Communication poses a problem as people from different cultures interact with each other. Often times, they misunderstand each other, and react in ways that are inappropriate. Below are some barriers to intercultural communication. Du Praw & Axner (1997) outline six barriers to intercultural communication: 1. Different Communication Styles. The way in which people communicate varies from culture to culture. One aspect of communication style is the use of language. Different cultures use words and phrases differently. Some cultures place a huge importance on non-verbal communication, while others do not. Non-verbal communication ―Includes not only facial expressions and gestures; it also involves seating arrangements, personal distance, and sense of time (Du Praw & Axer, 1997, p.1). Additionally, different norms adhering to the right amount of assertiveness, when communicating can add to cultural misunderstandings. For example, some Caucasian Americans consider raised voices to be a sign of hostility, while some African, Jewish and Italian Americans often feel that an increase in volume is a sign of an exciting conversation among friends. 2. Different Attitudes toward Conflict. In many cultures, conflict is often denoted as a negative thing; however, some cultures regard conflict as something positive thing. For instance, in the U.S., conflict is not necessarily desirable; but people are often encouraged to tackle conflict directly, as 20.

(30) they arise. In fact, face-to-face meetings customarily are recommended as the way to work through whatever problems exist. Contrastingly, conflict is viewed as embarrassing and demeaning in many eastern countries Du Praw & Axner (1997). 3. Different Approaches to Completing Tasks. People approach tasks differently according to their culture. Their differences in approach do not mean that one culture regard accomplishing the task as more important than the other. It simply means that different cultures have different ways of accomplishing tasks. In regards to working effectively on a task, cultures differ with respect to the importance they place on developing relationships during the collaboration. For example, Asian and Hispanic cultures tend to attach more value to developing relationships at the beginning of a shared project and more emphasis on task completion toward the end as compared with European-Americans. European-Americans, on the other hand, tend to focus immediately on the task at hand, and let relationships develop as they work on the task. 4. Different Decision-Making Styles. The roles individuals play in decision-making vary widely from culture to culture. For instance, in the U.S., decisions are often divided. Subordinates are usually handed tasks by a higher ranking supervisor. Quite the contrary, in many Southern European and Latin American countries, a strong value is placed on holding decision-making responsibilities by one person (supervisor). 5. Different Attitudes toward Disclosure. Some cultures find it inappropriate to be straight forward and open about emotions, the reasons behind a conflict or a misunderstanding, or about personal information. Communicators must bear this in when engaging in a dialogue or when working with people from different cultures. When dealing with conflicts, communicators must be mindful that people may differ in what they feel comfortable. 21.

(31) revealing. Questions that may seem natural to ask in one culture may come off as intrusive to other cultures. 6. Different Approaches to Knowing. There are significant differences among cultures, in regards to how they come to know things. European cultures tend to consider information acquired through cognitive means, more valid than other ways of coming to know things. On the other hand, African cultures prefer to form their sense of knowledge through symbolic imagery and rhythm. Asian cultures emphasize the validity of knowledge gained through striving toward transcendence. Additional difficulties in intercultural communication include the following: Assuming similarities. When intercultural communicators you assume similarities between cultures, they lose sight of important differences. According to Barna (as cited in Jandt, 2004), It is important for communicators to simply assume that there are no differences, when they have no particular information about a new culture. Still, to some degree, each culture is unique and different. Thus, it is better not to assume but to ask about new cultures. Anxiety. According to Barna (as cited in Jandt, 2004), when intercultural communicators focus on nervous feelings or fail to be totally aware, during the communication process, this affects their ability to communicate their ideas to others. Misunderstanding. Misunderstanding is by far the greatest hurdle in the communication process (Griffin, 2000). Communication is said to have taken place, when the receiver fulfills the intention of the sender. Absolute understanding is almost never reached, when communicating with people in the. 22.

(32) same groups, so it is even more of a challenge to reach this ideal, when communicating with people of different groups. Because communication patterns vary from culture to culture, this poses a barrier to intercultural communication. This ultimately builds tension and misunderstanding in intercultural communication settings. Norms and Roles. Norms and roles are prescribed sets of behavior shaped by a particular culture (Tubbs & Moss, 1994). These behaviors include social as well as conventional habits such as greetings, making requests, and expressing emotions. There are times in intercultural communication, when communicators tend to transfer their cultural norms onto others, and this is deemed as offensive. Roles vary from culture to culture. These are a set of norms that only applies to specific sets of people in society. For example, different roles are given to men, women, and first-born kids in certain cultures. Failure to abide by these roles may pose serious damage to intercultural communication. Stereotyping. Stereotypes are generalizations, good or bad, about people (Pang, 2001). These stem from insufficient knowledge about people, thus resulting in uninformed guesses when engaging in intercultural communication. Cultural stereotypes not only prohibit understanding but also results in the misinterpretation of behaviors. This, in turn, heightens anxiety, which is a threat to understanding. Ethnocentrism. Individuals own cultural experience causes them to believe that culture is inherent. Thus, people are somewhat forced to think that their groups culture is that which all others must be judged against. Consequently, any other behavior, which goes against theirs, is viewed as improper (Hall, 1976, cited in Tubbs & Moss, 1994). This habit to judge other cultures by using one‘s own culture, as the standard, is commonly referred to as ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism poses a threat to intercultural communication, for it blocks reasoning and understanding.. 23.

(33) Understanding these differences in cultural patterns can help to improve intercultural communication difficulties. Even when these patterns are observed, all cultural difficulties might never totally be eradicated. However, simply acknowledging them is a start to having more successful communication with others who are different.. Effective Intercultural Communication Life in this world today brings almost everyone into contact with people of different language, religion and culture. Due to such diversity, interaction among different groups is almost always expected to result in communication problems and misunderstandings. Becoming an effective intercultural communicator does not just happen by chance or happen overnight, for that matter. Effective communication is pivotal in developing strong and positive relationships with people. Unfortunately, it is not easy and it requires consistent attention, energy, and skills. Communication, with people, who are culturally different can be challenging. Becoming effective in intercultural communication demands motivation and some take the necessary steps to do so. There are several key issues to consider when engaging in effective intercultural communication. Openness, caring, and mutual respect for the dignity of individuals are essential qualities for effective communication, just to name a few. There are great advantages to being knowledgeable, respectful, and open towards others who are culturally different. Below are some strategies used for successful intercultural communication: 1. Become trans-cultured. This involves ―Asking oneself what preconceived notions about the other person‘s culture may hinder the communication process, letting go of any ethnocentrism, and simplifying the meaning of culture to understand the communicator for who they are as a person‖ (Brown, 2011, p.1).. 2. Become culturally relativistic.. 24.

(34) Becoming culturally relativistic can enhance communication difficulties related to ethnocentrism. According to Dwyer (2005), ―Cultural relativism is the recognition of cultural differences and the acceptance of the fact that each social group has its own set of cultural norms' (p.36). The term suggest that the only for intercultural communicators to understand each other is in the context of the other person‘s culture. It emphasizes that no one culture is particularly right or wrong but simply different. 3.. Let go of ethnocentric feelings. Many people believe that they possess any ethnocentric feelings, which is, regarding one‘s culture, nationality, or any other form of identity, as superior to others. Analyzing one‘s way of thinking could reveal quite the opposite, though. Brown states, ―In a multicultural setting, simply assuming that one‘s own culturally-accepted gestures or style of communication is appropriate to use amongst others is a form of ethnocentrism‖ (Brown, 2011, p.1). Thus communicators must be aware of the accepted verbal as well as nonverbal communication in regards to different cultures and try not to view verbal and nonverbal communication as right based on one‘s own perspective.. 4. Shift in consciousness. According to Brown, effective intercultural communication takes place, when there is a shift in consciousness on the part of the communicator. The communicator makes a conscious effort to ensure that his/her self (mind) is open to understanding (Brown, 2011). 5. Flexibility and open-mindedness. Adler (as cited in Dignes, 1983) lamented on the idea of the multicultural man being in constant personal transition. He must be open to new ideas, during the communication process. He must also be willing to embrace change and have a high tolerance for ambiguity. 6. Cultural empathy and non-judgmental perceptiveness.. 25.

(35) Cleveland, Mangone, and Adams (as cited in Dignes, 1983) highlights cultural empathy as important to intercultural effectiveness. Intercultural communicators must be able to believe in the community of mankind, without passing judgments. All communicators must be sensitive to each other. They must be able to not only observe, but also react to people of different culture with sensitivity. 7. Personal strength and stability. Personal strength and stability is important for successful intercultural communication. Each person is grounded in his/her own cultural reality and has a certain degree of personal autonomy. An internal center of control is a personal skill, which helps in intercultural communication (Toomey, 1999). 8. Resourcefulness and adaptability. Throughout the intercultural communication process, one must remain resourceful and be able to deal with any stress that may arise. Thus, the intercultural communicator must be able to develop an altogether new set of social rewards to sustain his/her behavior (Guthrie, 1975). The emotional flexibility to grapple failures, confusions, and misunderstandings is pivotal to effective intercultural communication. 9. Become mindful of one‘s thought process. According to Wiseman & Koester (1993) in order for effective communication to take place in any give situation, one must become aware of his/her thought process, that is, creating new categories (skill factors such as ability to empathize, tolerate ambiguity, adapt communication, accommodate behavior and gather appropriate information); becoming open to new information (motivational factors such as needs, attraction, social bond and self- conception) and becoming aware of more than one perspective (knowledge factors such as expectations and shared new perspective. 10. Avoid communication dissonance.. 26.

(36) According to Brown (2011) before interacting with persons from different cultures, or while communicating with others from different cultures, one should consider the following questions: . What preconceived notions do I have about this person based on social identity characteristics?. . Are those notions positive, negative, or neutral?. . Am I willing to be changed as a result of this interaction or experience?. . What communication tools can I use to try to create genuine communication?. 11. Simplify the situation. Developing a view of culture that depicts it as merely a community of practice, with its own way of doings things can help improve intercultural communications (Brown, 2011). Brown says, ―To understand what is culturally acceptable in another‘s community, one must make it his or her responsibility to become aware of what the social norms are in the other person‘s culture‖ (p.1). While following these steps can help one increase his effectiveness as an intercultural communicator, it is imperative to remember that just as communication is an ongoing process, becoming an effective intercultural communicator is also an ongoing process that takes hard work.. Espoused Theory and Theory in Use Argyris and Schon (1974) hold that people have mental maps, which prescribe their behavior in certain situations. This includes the way in which they plan, implement, and review their actions. It is believed that these maps guide people‘s actions, as opposed to the theories they hold true to themselves. Quite surprising is the fact that people are unaware of the notion that they use maps and theories. In other words, people often have two dissimilar theories concerning behavior: the one they espouse (espoused theory) and the one they use (theory of action) .There 27.

(37) is a divide between theories that people hold and the action they produce (Argyris & Schon 1974). Espoused theory can be described as the words people use to express what they do or what they would like others to think they do. It is the answer people give, when others ask how/she would behave in certain situations. Theory in use can be described as the theory that directs a person‘s action. They are mostly unspoken structures, which prescribe behavior. It is the action people take, when placed in any given situation). For the purpose of this study, it is important to note the extent to which the actions fit the espoused theory and whether or not inner feelings also fit the espoused theory.. Contact Theory Allport (1954) defines the contact theory as follows: Prejudice may be reduced by equal status contact between majority and minority groups in the pursuit of common goals. The effect is greatly enhanced if this contact is sanctioned by institutional supports (i.e. by law, custom, or local atmosphere), and provided it is of a sort that leads to the perception of common interests and common humanity between members of the two groups (p. 281).. Under the scope of the contact theory, it is believed that ethnic prejudice and intergroup tension can be reduced, if people are constantly in contact with one another. It assumes that contact will allow them to get to know each other better, and this is expected to lead to improved relations (Amir, 1969; Amir & Ben-Ari, 1985; Nesdale & Todd, 1998; Pettigrew & Tropp, 2000). Thus, when intercultural communication is looked at amongst students of different background, it is almost always assumed that students will overcome their initial difference by means of constant contact with one another. Being in a diverse classroom, or any other diverse setting, 28.

(38) positive intergroup contact is expected to take place. Intergroup contact is also believed to trigger indirect effects. For instance, studies conducted in Italy, Germany, and Northern Ireland yield that simply having in-group friends who have out-group friends relates to diminished prejudice (Paolini,. Hewstone, Cairns, & Voci, 2004). This occurrence is partially due to changing norms.. Nowadays, it is acceptable to have close contact with out-group contact if friends have contact with them. However, this is not always the case. Research has established otherwise. Levinger (1985) states that there are cases, when contact creates more appreciation between groups, this same contact situation can also result in the confirmation of preconceive notions about the out-group. Similarly, Amir (1969) reported that contact does not always reduce intergroup prejudice and tension. In fact, there are several instances, where increased contact is said to have led to increased anxiety and the upsurge of racial insurrection. Instances in which intergroup contact can enhance prejudice are in the case of work environments, where intergroup competition exists and situations involving intergroup conflict. This can be detrimental While intergroup contact is said to reduce prejudice (Reicher, 2007) the process of intergroup contact is also dangerous, for it might delay much needed social change. Social conflict is regarded as essential for social change to occur. Society changes as a result of conflict. Hence, if there is no real conflict, then there is no room for change. Thus, critics are concerned that aiming to reduce the prejudice of the less powerful will ultimately put off their willingness to initiate the conflict necessary for social progress. In essence, the contact theory assumes that ethnic prejudice and intergroup tension can be reduced, if people are constantly in contact with one another. However, it is also stated that there are cases, when contact creates more appreciation between groups, this same contact situation can also result in the confirmation of negative, preconceived notions about the out-group. Some critics view the process of intergroup contact as dangerous, for it might delay much needed social change and disrupt the natural order of life, whereby conflict is necessary. In this study, Contact theory, Espoused theory, and Theory in use are used as the theoretical framework, when analyzing the behaviors on intercultural interactions. 29.

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(40) CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODS Having described the research purpose, context and questions in Chapter One and the Literature Review in Chapter Two, the purpose of this chapter is to explain the research methods. The chapter explores, identifies, and describes the research framework procedure and the research sample which will be used to help in answering the research questions. Additionally, data collection and data analysis methods are introduced.. Research Approaches When it comes to research studies, two approaches are most often used i.e., qualitative and quantitative methods. It is pointed out that the difference between the two is in the information used in the analysis (Blumberg & Cooper 2008). When using quantitative approaches, the researcher describes behaviors and collects data, which is usually numerical in nature. On the other hand, qualitative methods studies information that is usually theoretical in nature; it is based on words, sentences and narratives and the analysis is on concrete cases in their temporal and local particularity (Dobrovolny & Fuentes 2008; Flick 2006). Merriam (2002, p. 6) wrote, ―All qualitative research is characterized by the search for meaning and understanding, the researcher as the primary instrument of data collection and analysis, an inductive investigative strategy, and a richly descriptive end product‖. Merriam (2002) stated various traits of a qualitative researcher. First of all, a qualitative researcher stresses the importance that individuals, who socially interact with the world around them, construct meaning. Unlike quantitative researchers, qualitative researchers see the world around them as a reality of various intricate, constructions that are constantly changing and evolving. As outlined by Merriam (2002), a qualitative approach is most appropriate when the goal of the researcher is to ―understand a phenomenon, uncover the meaning a situation has for those involved, or delineate a process‖ (Miriam, 2002, p. 11).This study outlines a qualitative approach. The reason behind such an approach is because the research intends to contribute to previous qualitative studies that have been conducted concerning intercultural communication as 31.

(41) well as to uncover the meaning behind the intercultural communication between local Taiwanese and international students. The present study aimed to explore the extent of the interaction between local Taiwanese students and international students. To reach this purpose, Contact theory, Espoused theory, and Theory in use were selected as the theoretical framework.. Theoretical Framework The 1930‘s and 40‘s marked the beginning of the study of intergroup contact by social psychologists. This interest ignited from the focus on intergroup relations and interaction between people within a social context. Constant observations of racial tension attracted researchers‘ interest in the study of contact. During one of the worst riots, of the United States history, in the 1940‘s it was observed that while Black and Whites fought in the streets, Black and Whites, who knew each other avoid fighting, but helped each other instead (Lee & Humprey, 1968). Following these observations, it was concluded that the more time Black and Whites spent bonding together, in different situations, the more positive their racial attitudes became (Brophy, 1946). Similary, Allport & Kramer (1946) discovered that prejudiced attitudes towards minorities of White students at Dartmouth College and Harvard University diminished overtime as the dominant group had more and more equal-status contact with the white minorities. However, there seems to have been glitches in these early researches. These studies might have run into problems with selective effects and casual direction. The problem of causal direction must always be examined, when evaluating the results of intergroup contact. Correlation does not always mean causation. It must be questioned if reduced prejudiced occurred as a result of the contact or if it was not just the case that the more tolerant people engaged in contact (Binder et al., 2009). In 1954, Allport released his work, ―The Nature of Prejudice‖. He spoke about the opposite effects of intergroup contact theory. Allport explained his findings using ―positive factors‖ approach. He assumed that reduced prejudice will occur when four positive features of 32.