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The Philosophy of Coaching: What is the
Democratic Coaching of Hans Lenk?
Masami Sekine
Faculty of Sport Science, Nippon Sport Science University
Abstract
T h i s p ap e r e x a mi n e th e c o n c ep t o f d e mo c r a t i c c o a ch in g , wh i ch w i l l b e a b l e to p ro v id e a n effe c t i v e so lu t i o n t o t h e p ro b l e m o f co rp o r a l p u n i sh me n t a n d a t h l e t e’s s e c o n d c a r e e r, a n d e x a m i n i n g h o w t h i s i d e a c o u l d b e u s e d t o r e s o l v e r e al s i t u at i o n s i n mo d e r n s p o r t . T h e w o r d “d e m o c r a t i c ” w as f i r st u s ed t o d e s c r i b e t h e co a ch i n g s t y l e i n We s t G e r m a n r o w i n g f r o m t h e l at e 1 9 5 0 s t o t h e 19 60 s. Th e au th or w i ll ex ami n e t he t e r m “ d e mo c r a t i c ” n o t i n i t s mo s t c o m mo n co n n o t a t i o n b u t b y ex a mi n i n g r ea l h i st o r i ca l c a s e s o f d e mo c r a t i c c o a c h i n g in th e w o r ld o f sp o r t. It i s co n cl u d e d t w o p o i n t s. Fi r s t, L e n k ’s wo rk h a s s h o wn u s t h a t t h e r e i s a c o a c h i n g sty l e t h a t c a n e n h an c e p er f o r ma n c e w i t h o u t r e s o r t i n g t o c o r p o r a l p u n i s h me n t an d v i o l en ce . T h a t s t y l e i s c al l ed d e mo c r a t i c c o a ch i n g . S e c o n d , i t h a s a l so sh o w n u s h o w t e a m c o n s e n su s can b e r e a c h ed t h r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n a n d d i a l o g , w h i c h c a n a l s o h el p t o n u r t u r e i n t el l e ct u al a c t i v i ti e s a mo n g a th l e t e s. Sp o r t p e rf o rma n c e a n d i n t el l e ct u a l a c t i v i t i e s a r e n o r ma l l y r e g ar d ed a s v ery d iff er e n t t h in g s . H o w e v e r, b o th q u al it i e s m ay b e e n h an c e d th ro u g h th e w o rk in g o f d i sc u s s io n an d d i al o g . Th i s d o e s n o t co n t r i b u t e t o a p o s s e s s i o n o f k n o w l ed g e. I t i s t h e f o s t e r i n g o f t h i n k in g s k i l l s t h a t i n v o l v e s t h e d i s c o v e r y a n d r e s o l u t i o n o f p r o b l e m s . D e mo c r a t i c c o a ch i n g i s u l t i ma t e l y a t r a in i n g me t h o d fo r t h o s e th in k in g s k i ll s . K e y w o rd s: p h ilo s o p hy o f co a c hi n g , d e m o c r a t i c c o a c h i ng , d i sc u s s i o n a nd d i a lo g u e C o r r e s p o n d e n c e ： M a s a mi S e k i n e E - ma i l ： ms e k i n e @ n i t t a i . a c . j p D O I ： 1 0 . 3 9 6 6 / 2 2 2 6 5 3 5 X 2 0 1 8 0 6 0 7 0 2 0 0 31 0 . 3 9 6 6 / 2 2 2 6 5 3 5 X 2 0 1 7 0 6 0 6 0 2 0 0 138
1、Introduction
I n r e c en t y e a r s , p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n a n d sp o rt in J ap a n h a v e b e e n t ro u b l ed b y r ep o rt s o f co rp o ra l p u n i sh m e n t an d v io l en c e (S u z u k i , 2 0 1 4 , M a t su d a, 2 016 ). Th is issu e caug h t pub lic attention in 20 12 wh en a h igh sch o o l stud en t h a s co m mi t t e d su i c id e . Co rp o r a l p u n i sh me n t ad mi n i st e r e d b y th e s t u d en t’s b a s k et b al l c o a c h c au s e t o t h e t r ag e d y. In ad di ti on to t h e i n t en s ity of c o mp e t i ti o n , sp o r t s d e ma n d mo r e p h y si c a l t r a in in g th a n a n y o th e r cu lt u r al a c t i v i ty. Th e a mo u n t o f p h y s i c a l c o n t a ct r eq u i r ed i n sp o r t s i s p ar a l l e l ed b y n e i th e r li t er a t u r e n o r mu s i c . H e n c e , the r e h a s a l w ay s b e e n q u e st i o n wh e t h er s p or t i s a cl o s e f i el d to co rpo r a l p u n i sh me n t a n d v i o l e n c e . T h i s i s e s p e c i al l y t r u e i n t h e c a s e o f co mp e t i t i v e s po r t s w h e r e d ai l y t r ai n i n g an d t e a m e x p er i en c es a r e d i r e ct l y ai me d a t a ch i ev in g v i c to ry (S e k in e & H a t a , 2 0 1 2 ) . F o r v i c t o r y, at h l e t e s a n d c o a ch e s ma y re s o r t to al l ma n n e r o f me a n s. S o me t i me s , t h i s ma y e v e n i n c l u d e t h e re s t r i c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l t h o u g h t a n d f r e e d o m. T h e mo s t d i ff i cu l t p r o b l e m i n mo d e r n co a c h i n g i s t o p r e s erv e ind iv id u ality a nd hu man i t y o f a t h l et e s wh i l e c o a ch i n g a i ms a t w i n n i n g i t s e l f . I t i s th e d e n i a l o f h u ma n i ty in a th l e t e s (s c h o o l ch ild r en ) t h r o u g h co rp o ra l p u n i sh me n t a n d v i o l en c e t h at h a s c a u s ed s u c h p u b l i c b a sh i n g i n J a p an e se s o c i e t y. T h i s l e ad s t o an o t h e r s o c i a l p r o b l e m i n J a p a n , n a me l y, w h at h ap p e n s t o a t h l et e s a f t e r t h ey h a v e r e t i r ed . T h e mo s t me mo r a b l e e x a mp l e o f t h i s i s su e i s t h e ar r e s t o f a r et i r ed J a p a n e s e p r o f e s si on a l b a s eb a l l p l ay e r d u e t o su b st a n ce a b u s e a f e w y e a r s a g o . I t i s t h o u g h t t h a t co a ch i n g t o d ay i s f a c e d wit h t w o ma j o r ch a l l en g e s . T h e f i r s t i s t h e n e ed to e st a b li s h a co a c h i n g sty l e t h at d o e s n o t r e ly o n co r p o ra l p u n i s h m e n t o r v i o l e n c e ( N i s h iy a m a , 2 0 1 4 ) . T h e s e c o n d i s t h e c o a c h in g me t h o d o lo g i e s ex p e ct to b e h e lp fu l to a t h l ete ’s l a t e r s ec o n d c a r e e r. T h e s e t wo t a s k s a r e i mp o r t a n t t o p r e s e r v i n g t h e s o ci al v a l u e an d i n t eg r i t y as w e l l a s t h e e d u c at io n al v a lu e o f s p o r t. T h i s p ap e r ex ami n e th e co n c ep t o f d e mo c r a t i c c o a c h i n g , w h i ch it w i l l b e a b l e to p r o v i d e an e ff e c t i v e s o l u t i o n t o t h e
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p r ev io u sly men tion e d two ch allen g e s, and ex amin in g ho w th is id ea could b e u sed to reso lv e real sit u atio n s in mo d e rn spo r t.
2、Karl Adam’s Democratic Coaching
Te r ms s u c h a s “ r u n n i n g a t e a m i n a d e mo c r a t i c ma n n er ” o r “d e mo c r a t i c c o a c h i n g s t y l e ” a r e g en e r a l l y a s so c i a t ed w i th a mo r e ath l e t e- c e n t er e d s ty l e of t e a m ma n a g e me n t . I t h a s a p e a c ef u l a n d i d y l l i c a i r, n o t h i n g i ma g e o f v i o l e n ce . H o w e v er, is su c h a co a c h in g sty le r e a lly f e as i b l e i n t h e wo r ld o f co mp e t i ti v e s p o r t s wh e r e v i c to ry i s th e u l t i ma t e p u r su it? H i s to ri c a l ly, t h e w o rd “ d e mo c r a t i c ” w a s f i r st u s ed t o d e s c r i b e t h e co a c h i n g s t y l e i n We s t G e r ma n ro wing from th e late 1 950 s to th e 196 0 s (Lenk , 19 82 ). Th e au th or will e x a mi n e t h e t e r m “ d emo c r a t i c ” n o t i n i t s mo s t c o mmo n c o n n o t a t i o n b u t b y e x a mi n i n g r e a l h i st o r i c a l c a s e s o f d e mo c r a t i c c o a ch i n g i n t h e wo r l d o f s p o r t . T h e f o l l o wi n g p a s s a g e i s t ak e n f r o m T h e Am a t eu r s ( Ha l b e r st a m, 1 9 8 5 ) , a b o o k b y t h e A me r i ca n j o u r n a l i s t D av id Ha l b e r st a m, w h i ch d e s cr i b e s fo u r o a r s me n ’s q u e st fo r an Oly mp i c g o l d me d a l: I t wa s a s i f h e w e re c a u g h t b e t w ee n t wo co n fl i c ti n g s e t s o f c o a ch e s, h i s ea s t e rn o n e s a n d h i s w e s t e rn o n e s , w h o re f l e c t ed t h e s c h i sm i n t h e w o r l d o f U . S . ro w i n g . Hi s e a s t e r n co a ch e s , Ha r r y P a r k e r a n d To n y J o h n so n , w e re d i s ci p l e s o f m e n su c h a s J o e B u r k i n t h i s c o u n t r y a n d K a rl A d a m , c o a ch o f th e fa m e d R a t z e b u r k c re w i n We s t G e r ma n y. W h en A d a m ’s c re w, m a d e u p o f b a s i c a ll y R a t z e b u r k o a r s m e n , h a d w o n i n t h e 1 9 6 0 O l y m p i c s, h e h a d b e co m e a n in flu e n t ia l f ig u re in A m er i c a . (1 4 2 ) K a r l A d a m, w h o H a l b er s t a m n a me s h er e, p r ac t i c e d d e mo c r a ti c co ac h in g . H a n s L enk b o r n in 19 3 5 w as an Ol y mp ic g o l d m ed a l i st at R o m e , a n d h e i s a l s o a p h il o s o p h e r. L en k wo n t h e g o l d in men’s eigh t rowing at th e 196 0 Ro me O l y mp i c Ga me s . H e l a t e r b e c a me a p r o f e s so r o f p h i l o s o p h y a t t h e U n i v e r si t y o f K a r l s r u h e , G er ma n y. I t w a s d u r i n g th e R o me O ly mp i c G a m e s t h at L en k
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( 1 9 8 2 ) r e ce i v ed d e mo c r a t i c co a ch in g f ro m K a r l Ad a m . A ft e r h a v i n g h a d th a t u n i q u e e x p e r i e n c e, t h i s i s h o w h e de s c r i b ed t h e p h i l o so p h y o f co ac h i n g :
T h e id e a l m o d el s o f t h e s o - c a l le d “ e m a n ci p a t ed a n d e n l ig h t e n ed a th l e t e ” ( “ m ü n d i g e r A t h l e t ” ) , o f h i s “so vereign ity” and o f th e so-ca lled “ d e mo c r a t i c ” ( i . e . , co n c e p t i o n a l l y p a r t i ci p a t o r y ) s t y l e o f co a c h i n g h a v e b e e n e la b o r a t ed in t h e re a l m o f p r a ct i ca l co a ch in g c re w s a t Ra tz e b u rg d u ri n g t h e 1 9 5 0 s a n d ‘ 6 0 s . ( 9 4 - 1 0 6 ) W h il e “ d emo c r a t i c co a c h i n g ” su gg e s t s a n u mb e r of d iff e r en t co a c h i ng s ty l e s a n d me t h o d s, we s h a ll li mi t th e s c o p e o f i t s d i s cu s s i o n to t h e p a rt i cu l a r ty p e o f d emo c r a t i c c o a c h i n g me n t io n e d b y H a n s L en k in h i s b o o k o n t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f s p o r t . T h e t e r m “ d e m o c r a t i c” in th is pap e r sh all b e u sed in a l i mi t e d s en s e , r ef e r r i n g t o r e a l h i s t o ri c a l c as e s o f d e m o c r a t i c co ac h i n g an d n o t i t s g en e r a l co n n o ta t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o L e n k ( L e n k , 1 9 8 6 ) , d e mo c r a t i c co a c h i n g i s “ a ty p e o f c o a c h i n g p ro p o s ed o r su g g e ste d th ro u g h a co m m o n d i s c u s si o n b e t w ee n ma n a g e r, co a c h , a n d a t h l et e , wh i c h en a bl e s t h e a t h l e t e t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e d e c i s i o n - ma k i n g p r o ce s s ” , a n d i t d o e s n o t r e l y o n ex t er n a l f o r c e o r v i o l en c e. F o r t h i s co a c h i n g s t y le , fo r ex amp l e , i t poi n t ed ou t th a t, “ it is i n ev it able t h a t an a t h l e t e an d h i s / h er c o a ch w i l l f o r m a s e l f – o th e r s r e l at i o n sh ip n o t u n l i k e t h at b e t w e en a c h i l d a n d a t e a c h er at s c h o o l” ( S e k i n e et a l. , 20 06 ), u n d e rl in in g t h e e d u c at i o n al a sp ec t in th i s ty p e o f r e l at i o n sh ip . I t i s cl e a r t h a t t h e e ss e n c e o f d e mo c r a t i c c o a c h i n g i s a mu t u a l d e c i s i o n i n v o l v in g bo th th e co ach an d th e at h l et e. We s h a l l n o w d e a l wi t h t h i s co n c e p t i n mo r e d eta i l .
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3、Lenk’s Definition of “Democratic Coaching”
3-1. Three Types of Coaching
To f i r st d e s c r i b e t h e f a c t s, t h e a u t h o r w i l l b eg i n b y d e s c r i b i n g t h e c l a s s i f i c at i o n o f c o a ch i n g s t y l e s p u t f or w a r d b y L en k ( L e n k , 1 9 8 7 , 7 3 - 7 6 ) . H e d i v i d e d co a c h i n g s t y l e s i n t o t h r e e d i ff er e n t c a t eg o r i e s. T h es e a r e ( 1 ) a u t h o r i t at i v e co a ch i n g , ( 2 ) l a i s s e z - f a i r e c o a ch i n g , an d ( 3 ) d e mo c r a t i c c o a c h i n g . In au th o r i t at i v e c o a ch in g , al l i n str u c ti o n s are g iv en b y t h e c o a ch , a n d su ch i n s t r u c t i o n s mu s t b e clo s e l y fo l lo w e d w h et h e r i t i s r e g u l a r t r a in in g o r wh e t h e r g a me s t r a t e g i e s ar e b e i n g d r a wn u p . I n l a i ss e z - f a i r e co a c h i n g , i n c o n t r a s t , ev e r y t h i n g h a s t o b e r e s o l v ed b y t h e a t h l e t e w i t h ab s o l u t el y n o g u i d an c e f r o m t h e co ac h . D e mo c r a t i c c o a ch i n g i s b a s ed o n j o i n t d i s cu s s i o n s b e t w e en t h e a t h l e t e an d t h e co a ch .
3-2. Characteristics of Democratic Coaching
L e n k s ay s t h a t t h e “ mo s t ev i d e n t ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f d emo c r a t i c co a c h i n g a r e mu t u a l d e c i s i o n s an d t h e f a ct t h a t adv i so ry in s tr u ct io n s a r e o n ly g i v en to h e lp p r o mo t e s e l f - su p e r v i si o n ” (L e n k , 1 9 7 7 , 111 ) . I n a u t h o r i t a t i v e c o a c h i n g , d e c i s i o n s ar e h an d ed d o w n t o a t h l e t e s b y th e c o a c h r e g ar d in g ev e ry t h in g fr o m t h e t r a in i n g p ro g r a m t o t e a m l in e -u p t o g a me t a c t i c s . T h e a t h l e t e s a r e n o t a l l o w ed t o r e s i s t su ch d e c i s i o n s . H o w ev er, i n d e mo c r a t i c c o a ch i n g , t h e co a c h i s n o t n e ce s s a r i l y r eq u i r ed t o a t t e n d r e g u l a r t r ai n i n g s a n d t h e a t h l e t e s a r e e n c o u r ag e d t o ex p r e s s t h e i r o p i n i o n s. L e n k d e s cr i b e s t h e d e mo c r a t i c c o a c h i n g as “ b u i ld in g a n d su p er v i si n g y o u r o wn t r a i n i n g p ro g r a m w i t h i n t h e b o u n d s o f a l arg e r f r a me w o r k , ” ( L e n k , 1 9 7 7 , 111 ) th a t “th e tr a in e r i s o n ly p r e s en t d u r in g v ery i mp o r ta n t c o mp e t i t i o n s , w h i c h sh o u l d b e d i s c u s s e d b y a l l me mb e r s o n t h e n i g h t b ef o r e a n d a s t r at e g y b a s e d o n b o t h t h e a th l et e’s o p i n i o n a n d t h e c o a c h ’s o wn e x p er i en c e s h o u ld b e d r a w n u p ” (L e n k , 1 9 7 7 , 111 ) . In sp i t e o f i t s ap p e ar a n c e, d e mo c r a t i c c o a c h i n g d o e s n o t se e k t o a ch i e v e f r i e n d l y c o mr a d es h i p b u t t h e
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u l ti ma t e g o a l o f v i c to ry o r h ig h e r p e r fo rma n c e . I n f a c t , s u c h r e s u l t s ( v i c t o r y, p e r fo r ma n c e ) h av e a p p e a r ed a s ac h i ev a b l e as in au th o ri t a ti v e c o ac h in g . L e n k ( 1 9 7 7 ) s a y s a s f o l l o w s : I n re c e n t e x a mp l es , ro w i n g t ea m s c o a ch ed u n d e r s t ro n g a u t h o r i t a t i v e i n f l u en ce ( d i re c t a n d s tri c t s u p e r v i s i o n ) a n d ro w i n g t ea m s c o a ch ed d e m o c r a t i ca l l y (d i re c t su pe r vi s i o n i n m o d er a t i o n ) h a v e ea c h y i e l d ed o p t i m a l re s u l t s c o mp e t i t i v e ly. In o th er wo rd s, bo th coa c hing s t y l e s h a ve b ro u g h t w i n n i n g re s u l t s a t t h e O l y mp i c Ga m e s, w o r l d c h a mp i o n sh i p s , a n d E u ro p ea n c h a mp i o n sh i p s . H e n ce , t o p - l e v el s u c c e s s c a n b e a c h i e v e d t h ro u g h ei t h e r s t y l e . F o r sp o r t i n g a c h i e v e m e n t s , n e i t h e r t y p e o f c o a c h i n g h a s d e mo n s t ra t e d a n o v er w h e l m i n g s u c c e s s o v e r t h e o th e r. (11 2 )A s s e e n i n t h e ab o v e p a s s a g e , ex t r a c t e d f r o m L e n k ’s L eist u n g s mo tiva t ion
u n d Ma n n sc h a f t sd y n a m i k ( 1 9 7 7 ) , d e m o c r a t i c c o a c h i n g a p p e a r s t o h av e h ad a s i mi l a r p e rf o r ma n c e to au th o r it at i v e co a c h in g . In t e r ms o f v i ct o ry d e mo c r a tic c o a c h i n g h a s n o t p r o d u c ed l e s s d e s i r ab l e o u t c o me s . L e n k ( 1 9 7 7 ) h a s a l so n o t e d t h e i n eff e c t i v e n e s s o f l a i s s e z - f a i re co a ch in g in te r ms o f t h e p e r fo r ma n c e it p r o d u ce s . An o t h er i mp o r t an t f e at u r e o f d e mo c r a t ic co a c h in g i s t h e w ei g h t g i v e n t o j o i n t d i s cu s s i o n . T h e f o l l o wi n g i s a d e s c r i p t i o n g i v en b y L e n k ( 1 9 7 7 ): T h e c ru c i a l t h i n g i s w h e t h e r t h e a th l et e s a re g i v en th e p o s si b i li t y o f c o - d e s i g n i n g a n d v o l u n t a ri l y i n f l u en c i n g t h e i r t r a in i n g s t h ro u g h d i s cu s s i o n s b e t w e en a t h l e t e s a n d t h e i r co a c h e s . Of c o u rs e , t h e re a re a l so c a s e s w h e re a t h l et e s d o u n d e r t a ke t r a i n i n g b a s ed o n t h e s u g g e st i o n s a n d e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e i r t r a i n e r w i t h o u t a n y d i s c u s s i o n . T h i s t y p e o f c o a c h in g c a n s ti ll ma in ta in a ce r t a in d e mo c r a t i c q u a l it y i f th e t ra in e r i s w i l li n g t o l i st e n t o t h e a t h l e t e s w h en e v er t h e re a re d i s a g re e me n t s a n d i f e q u a l c o n si d e ra t i o n i s g i v e n t o a th l et e s’ f e e d b a c k. ( 1 0 7 ) F o r d e mo c r a t i c co a c h i n g , i t i s i mp o r t an t t o a s s u r e a ch an c e o f d i s cu s s i o n .
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A t h l et e s ca n s ay t h ei r o p i n i o n a n d re a c h t h e co n s en t a b o u t t r a i n i n g an d t a c t i c s.
4、Merits and Demerits of Democratic
Coaching
F r o m t h e a b o v e o u t l i n e o f d emo c r at i c c o a c h i n g , o n e s u g g e s t i o n c a n a l r e a d y b e d r a w n o n c o a ch i n g me t h o d s i n s p o r t s . A s f a r a s s p o r t s are c o n c er n ed , me t h o d s su c h a s l a i s s ez - f a i r e co ac h in g , w h er e at h l e t e s a r e a llo w e d a b s o l u t e f re e d o m, ar e s i mp ly i mp l au s ib l e in p r a c t i c e. W h en i t i s d o n e o u t s id e c o mp e t i t i v e s p o r t s , p l ay ed a mo n g f r i en d s, l a i s s e z- f ai r e co a c h i n g co u l d b e c o n si d er a b l e . Bu t in v i ct o ry - d ri v en co mp e t i ti v e sp o r t s , wh e r e d e mo c r a t ic c o a c h i n g i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e i d ea l a p p ro a ch an d a u t h o r i t at i v e c o a c h i n g i s s o me t i me s u s e d a s a n e ff e ct i v e me t h o d , l ai s s e z - f ai r e c o a ch i n g i s n ev e r t h o u g h t o f a s a c r ed i b l e o p t io n . E s p e c i a l l y a t t h e fo r e fr o n t o f s p o rt s c o a ch in g , t h e c h o i c e i s a l w ay s b e t w e en t h e a u t h o ri t at i v e an d d emo c r a t i c s ty l e s (o r to w h a t d e g r ee t h e l at t e r s h o u l d b e u s e d ) . W h en t r y i n g t o ma x i mi z e p e r f o r ma n c e i n c o mp e t i t i v e s p o r t s , i t i s al w ay s e a s i e r t o r e s o r t t o au t h o r i t at i v e c o a ch i n g . U n l ik e l a i ss e z - f a i r e co a c h i n g , th e f u n ct io n al i ty o f au th o r it a ti v e co a c h i n g c an n e v er b e ig n o r ed w h e n ai mi n g fo r v i c to ry i n co mp e t i ti v e sp o r t s , ev e n if d e mo c r a t i c c o a ch i n g i s t h e i d e a l o p t i o n . H e r e t h e q u e s t i o n r ema i n s a s t o w h et h er d e mo c r a t i c c o a c h i n g i s a c t u al l y p r a c t i c a b l e f o r co a c h es a n d t e a ms i n c omp et i ti v e s p o rts , p a r ti c u l ar ly in t o p -l e v e -l s p o r t s . A -l t h o u g h i t i s a n i d e a -l w a y t o i m p ro v e c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s , t h e s u c c e s s o f d e mo c r a t i c c o a c h i n g i s c o n d i t i o n a l . I t i s n o t e ff e c t i v e f o r al l l ev e l s o f c o m p e t i t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o L e n k , “ w h i l e t h e ‘ d e m o c r a t i c ’ m e t h o d m a y b e s u i t ab l e f o r i n t e l l e ctu a l co l l eg e t e a ms wi t h h ig h e r p e r fo r ma n c e , i t i s n o t s u i t a b l e f o r a m a t e u r t e a m s o f y o u n g a d u l t s o r b eg in n e r s ” ( 1 9 7 7 , 11 5 ) . T h e e ff e c ti v en es s o f d e mo c r a t i c co a ch in g i s l i mi t e d to c e rta i n g ro u p s o f p eo p l e . H e n c e , d emo c r a t i c co a c h i n g i s b y n o me a n s an o mn i p o t e n t me t h o d : t h e ag e44
a n d so ci al attr i b u t es o f th o s e b e in g c o a ch e d mu st b e ta k e n i n t o ac c o u n t . P a r t i cu l ar ly wi th c h i ld r en , ad ul t- l e d au th o ri t a ti v e co ac h in g may b e th e b e tte r o p t io n in te r ms o f p e rf o r ma n c e ac h i ev e me n t . O n t h e o t h e r h an d , d e mo c r a t i c c o a c hi n g h a s h a d a d r a ma t i c e ff e c t o n t h o s e wh o a r e s u i t ed t o i t s sty l e . L e t u s a s su me a t e a m o f co l l e g e s t u d e n t s . I n t h e i r o wn s p e c i a l i z e d a c a d e mi c f i e l d s , co l l e g e st u d en t s a cq u i r e k n o w l ed g e a n d r e a s o n i n g t h r o u g h me a n s su c h a s a t t e n d i n g l e c t u r e s , r e a d i n g , a n d e x p er i me n t s . U s i n g t h e i r i n t e l l ec t u a l r e so u r c e s , t h ey a l s o d ev e l o p me t h o d s t o w a rd v i c t o ry b y ad a p t in g t e c h n i c a l th eo ry, p h y s io lo g y, o r t r ain in g th eo ry l e a r n ed f ro m t h e i r sp ec i a l i z ed stu d i e s . Th i s l e a v e s u s w i t h o n e q u e s t io n : w il l s t u d e n t s wi t h su ch in t e l l e c tu al q u al ity b e t u rn ed in to “ p e r f o r ma n c e r o b o t s” a n d “ mu s c l e ma c h i n e s” ? O r w i l l t h ey b e a b l e t o a ch i ev e t h e d e s i r e d l ev e l o f p e r fo r ma n c e th ro u g h in n at e mo t iv a t io n sp u rr e d o n b y in t e ll e c tu a l d i s cu s s io n a n d d i a l o g ? D e mo c r at i c co a c h i n g i s c er t ai n ly th e k ey to t h e l a t t er. S u ch i n t el l e ct u al q u a l ity w o u ld b e w a st e d o n s t u d e n t at h l e t es w h o s e co a c h p r e f e r s a n a l l- c o n t r o l li n g , au th o r i t at iv e s ty l e. H o w e v er, i f t h e c o a c h c h o o se s d e mo c r a t i c c o a ch in g , s t u d e n t s c an u t i li z e th a t i n t e l l e ctu a l q u al i ty n o t o n ly to i mp r o v e i n d i v i d u al co mp e t i t i v en e s s b u t al s o t o i n c r e a s e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f f i n al v i ct o ry. I n s p i t e o f t h a t, n o t all co a c h e s fa v o r t h i s sty l e. L en k ( 1 9 7 7 ) d e sc r i b ed d e mo c r a t i c c o a ch in g as f o l lo w s : “T h i s st y le i s n o t su it a b l e fo r tho s e w h o a re u n w i l l i n g t o sh e d t h e t r a d it io n a l b e l i ef th a t ‘ t h e f o l l y o f a n o a r sm a n ca n a lw a y s b e i g n o red a s l o n g a s h e i s st ro n g .’ D e mo c r a t i c co a ch in g i s b y n o m ea n s a n ea sy a p p ro a ch : i t i s a h i g h l y co mp l e x m e t h o d a n d d em a n d s p ro g re s s i v e t h i n ki n g . T h e ‘ d e mo c r a t i c’ me t h o d ca n n o t b e p re s c r i b ed f o r a l l s i t u a t i o n s. ” ( 11 5 ) A s L en k cla i me d , d emo c r a t i c co a c h i n g i s n o t a p an ac e a b u t a p o w e r f u l d r u g t h a t c a n a ch i ev e d r a ma t i c e ff e c t s u n d er c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s . H a v i n g e x p er i en c ed d e mo c r a t i c co a ch i n g a s a me mb e r o f t h e We s t G er ma n r o w i n g45
t e a m d u r in g th e 1 9 6 0 s an d l a t e r tu rn in g i t i n t o a fo r ma l t h eo ry, L en k b e li e v ed t h a t i t i s n o t a p ro g r am s u i t e d to th e t e a ch i n g o f y o u n g er a t h l e t e s , w h o a r e s t i l l c o mp a r a t i v e l y i m m a t u r e . I n t e r ms o f p o s s i b l e r a n g e o f a p p l i c at i o n , d e mo c r a t i c c o a ch i n g se e ms l e s s i d e a l a s a c o a c h i n g s t y l e f o r sp o r t s . B e c a u se i t i s n o t u se f u l f o r a l l a t t r i b u t e o f a th l et e s . W h en i t i s a p p l i ed t o s e c o n d ary e d u c at i o n a g e i t mi g h t t o l e a d t o w e ak p e r f o r ma n c e a n d l e s s d i s c u s si o n . D e mo c r a t i c c o a ch in g se e ms t o b e i n fl u en c ed b y so me c o n d i ti o n s . W h a t eff e ct d o e s d e m o c r a ti c co ac h in g h a v e o n a th l e t es ? Wh a t ca n b e e x p e ct e d f r o m s p o r t s t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f d e m o c r a t i c co ac h i n g ? T h es e q u e s t i o n s l e a d u s to o u r n e x t d is c u s s io n .5、Team’s victory becomes victory for each
individual
E v e n t h o u g h d e m o c r a t i c c o a c h in g c a n h av e a t r e m e n d o u s i m p a c t o n t h e n u r tu r in g o f c h a r a ct e r, L en k d o es n o t ap p r ec i a t e it fo r i t s ed u c a t io n al v a lu e a l o n e . Th i s i s b e c au s e c o n t e st i s in e v i t ab l e in sp o r t s. B ey o n d b e i n g a g o ld me d a l i s t i n R o me , L en k al s o l ed th e G e r ma n r o w in g t e am t o fi n al v i c to ri e s at E u r o p e a n an d wo r l d ch a mp i o n s h i p s a s a co a c h . I t wo u ld b e i mp o s s ib l e f o r h i m t o o v e r l o o k t h e in f lu en c e o f co a c h in g s ty l e o n t h e i mp ro v e me n t o f c o mp e t i ti v e s k il l s. Ho w e v e r, t h e g r ad u al b u il d -u p o f in d iv id u al sk i l l s i t s el f is n o t s u ffi c i e n t en o u g h t o s e c u r e v i c t o ry i n c o mp e t i t i o n s . W h i l e q u an t i t at i v e a b i l i t i e s su c h a s mu s c u l a r s t r en g t h a n d en d u r an c e a r e e s s e n t i al f o r wi n n i n g c o mp e t i t i o n s , t h e s e a r e n e c e s sa r i l y aff ect e d b y so c i a l i n t er ac t i o n s. F o r e x a mp l e , w h a t h ap p e n s i f t h e r i v al ry b e t w e e n t e a m me mb e r s f o r a r eg u l a r p o si t i o n l ea d s t o e mo t i o n al f r i c t i o n s? I n s u c h a c a s e , t h e t e a m w o u l d n o t b e p e r fo r me d e v e n i f h i s /h e r p h y si c al s tr e n g th is e n h a n c ed . C a n d e mo c r a t i c c o a ch i n g h av e a n eg a ti v e imp a c t o n a t e a m w h en i t is a c t u a lly p ra c t i c e d an d n o t o n ly p r e a ch e d ? Wo ul d i t imp a i r th e effect o f th e t r a in in g i f t e a m me mb e r s c o n f l i c t ed o v e r t h e t r ai n in g p l an i n g ro u p46
d i s cu s s i o n s? B y t h e s ame l o g i c, d e mo c r a t i c c o a c h i n g ca n al s o d e cr e a s e t e a m s p i ri t o r u n i ty w h en o p in io n s a r e d iv id ed d u r i n g g a me p l an me e t i n g s. Th i s is t h e s o - c al l e d i s s u e o f “ i n t e rn a l c o n f l i c t a n d p e r f o r m a n c e . ”
L e n k ( 1 9 7 7 ) d e s cr i b e s a s f o l l o w s:
“Ten sion an d co nflict can o c cu r in t ea m s th a t a re c o a c h ed in th e ‘ d e mo c r a t ic ’ s t y l e. I t i s n o t u n u s u a l t o f in d i n f ig h t in g a n d co l l i sio n a m o n g t e a m m e m b e r s. Ho w e v e r, s u c h c o n f l i c t a re r a re w h en t h e t r a i n e r i s a n a u t h o r i t y f i g u re re v e re d b y a l l ” ( 11 3 ) . I n f a c t , t h e G er ma n r o wi n g t e a m, i n w h i ch L e n k w a s a me mb e r, e x p er i en c ed o f i n f i g h t i n g . T h e t e a m c oa c h e d u n d e r d e mo c r a t i c s t y l e w a s n o t f r i e n d l y c o m r a d e s h i p . L e n k ( 1 9 7 7 ) h i ms e l f r e c a l l ed o n e s u ch ep i so d e:
“ I n t h a t sma l l bo at , i t i s na tu ral to co mp et e wi th you r tea mmat es or a sub s ti tu te memb er wh o ha s simi l a r ab i l i t i e s t o yo u r s , so a t h l et e s mu s t p ro v e t h ei r v a l u e o n a re g u l a r b a s i s . T h e mo re y o u f e el t h e p re s su re o f c o m p et i t i o n t h a t d e ma n d s co n s t a n t p e r f o rm a n c e, t h e p re s s u re f ro m c o a ch t h a t e x h a u st s b o t h yo u r m in d a n d b o d y, a n d th e f e a r o f n o t k n o w in g w h en y o u w o u ld re a c h t h e b re a k i n g p o i n t, t h e m o re t i m e a n d e n e rg y y o u w i l l w a s t e . T h e s e c o u l d a l l b e c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r s t o t h a t p e c u l ia r f r u s t r a tio n t h a t y o u b e g i n t o ex p e r i en c e t o w a rd yo u r t e a m m e m b e r s , o r e v en o u t s i d e r s su c h a s t h e t r a i n e r o r o t h e r s t a f f , e s p e c i a l l y h a l f w a y t h ro u g h t h e s e a so n” (14 2 ). D e s p i t e co n f li c t s b etw e e n at h l et e s , L en k ’s ro w in g t e am s t i l l ma n a g e d to win Oly mpic go ld me d a l, and he th en e v en c o a ch ed a n o t h er e i g h t t e a m t o t r i u mp h a t t h e wo r l d c h a mp i o n s h i p . Cl early, in t ern al con f lict du e to d e mo c r a t i c c o a c h i n g d id n o t l ea d to an y d e c l i n e i n p e r fo r ma n c e . N e x t , it s h o u ld b e c o n si d er e d th e s ig n i fi c a n c e o f i n n e r co n fl i c t o r co n f r o n t at io n . G r o u p s su i t e d f o r d emo c r a t i c co a c h i n g a r e o f t en t h o s e mo t i v a t e d t o w a r d t h e s a me g o a l . T h e ty p e o f ex p er ie n c e mu s t b e d i s ti n g u i s h ed fro m j u s t an y g a th e r in g o f o r d i n ary p e o p l e.
47
A c c o r d in g t o Fr e u d (2 0 0 1 , 8 5 ) , i n t el l e ct u a l a c t iv it i es a r e c o ll ec t i v ely r e p r e s s ed w i t h i n g r o u p s. To a v o i d t h i s , o r r a t h e r t o el i mi n a t e t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l d r a wb a c k s c a u s e d b y t h e f o r ma t i o n o f g r o u p s, Fr e u d ( 2 0 0 1 ) s u g g e st e d th e f o l l o wi n g : “T h e p ro b l e m co n s is t s in h o w t o p ro c u re f o r t h e g ro u p p re c i s ely t h o s e f e a t u re s w h i c h w e re c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d w h i c h a re e x t i n g u i sh ed i n h i m b y th e fo r ma ti o n o f th e g ro u p ” ( 8 6 ) . F r e u d ( 2 0 0 1 ) f u r t h e r t h o u g h t a “ u n o rg an i z e d g ro u p ” ( 8 5 ) . I t h as l o s t i n t el l e ct u al c h a r a ct e r. H e s a i d th at : “H e n c e i ts b eh a vi o r i s li k e th a t o f a n u n r u ly c h ild o r a n u n t u t o re d p a s si o n a t e s a v a g e i n a s t ra n g e s i t u a t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n l i k e t h a t o f i t s a v e r a g e me m b e r ; a n d i n t h e w o rs t ca s e s i t i s l i k e t h a t o f a w i l d b e a st , r a t h e r t h a n l i k e t h a t o f h u ma n b ei n g s ” ( F reu d , 8 5 ) . I f t h i s i s t r u e, a g ro u p t r ai n ed u n d er d e mo c r a t i c c o a c h i n g ma y b e c o n si d er e d “ a h ig h ly o rg a n i z e d g r o u p . ” In su ch a g ro u p , h o w to r e t ain i n d iv id u a l ity b e co me s a v i t al is s u e . Th u s, it wo u l d b e i mp o ss i b l e u n d er d e mo c r a t i c c o a ch i n g f o r t e a m me mb e r s t o r ema i n u n i fie d o r r e c o n c i l e d f ro m t h e b e g i n n i n g t o t h e en d . T h i s i s b e c a u s e, i f a t e a m i s f o r me d b y co mp l e t e i n t eg r at io n o r c o n fo rmi t y, th e g r o u p co me s to a lo w in t e l l e c tu al li f e a s F r eu d r e f e r r ed . Co n f l i ct s an d i n t e rn a l st r u g g l e s a re u n a v o id ab l e f o r h ig h ly o rg an i ze s g r o u p s t h a t p r a c t i c e d e mo c r a t i c c o a c h i ng . T h i s m e a n s t h a t h i g h l y o rg a n i z e d g ro u p s c a n n o t a ff o r d t o i n d u l g e i n a ny h a rmo n i o u s r el a t io n s h i p . I n ad d i t io n , t h e g ro u p i s c h a r a ct er i z e d b y st r o n g p er so n al it i e s . C o n f l i ct s a n d i n t e rn a l s t r u g g l e s ar i s e f r o m t h e i n cl i n a t i o n t o p r e se r v e o n e’s i d en t i t y. E a c h me mb e r mu s t p o s s es s p r i d e , s el f - e s t e e m, a n d a wi l l t o r e a ch s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n . F o r t h e a t h l e t e , s e l f - r e a l i z a t io n c a n in t e rp re t ma n y t h in g s, b u t i t i s wh a t o n e sh o u ld a c h i e v e; in t h e co n t ex t o f d e mo c r a t i c c o a ch i n g , t h a t w o u l d me a n v i c to ry a n d i mp r o v e me n t in p e rfo r ma n c e . Ho w e v er, a te a m c o u ld n e v er r e a ch a n y k i n d o f c o n s e n su s i f t h e me m b e r s were al l o wed to carry th ems e l v es wi th48
p r i d e a n d e x c e s s i v e s e l f - e s t e e m. T h i s i s w h e r e d i s cu s s i o n an d d i a l o g c an e ff e c ti v ely w o rk . Di sc u s s io n an d d i al o g c a n ch a n n el p r i d e a n d se l f - e s t e e m t o a s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n t h at i s f o u n d e d i n t e a m v i ct o ry. In d o in g s o , v i cto ry fo r th e t e a m b e c o me s v i c t o r y f o r e a c h i n d i v i d u a l t h r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n a n d d i a l o g . T h i s i s n o t t h e w o r k i n g o f r e l i g io u s p sy ch o l o g y b u t t h e r e s u l t o f d i s c u s s i o n a n d d i a l o g . U l t i ma t e l y, u n d e r d e mo c r a t i c c o a ch i n g , c o n s en s u s wi t h i n a t e a m c a n o n ly b e r e ac h e d t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f l an g u ag e , th a t i s, d i s cu s s io n a n d d i al o g , r a t h er t h an e x t e r n al fo r c e o r r e l i g i o u s f ai t h .6、Conclusion and Future Perspective
D e mo c r a t i c co a c h i n g , wh i ch w a s f i r s t p r ac t i c e d b y K a r l A d am a n d t h e o r i z e d b y H a n s L e n k , w o u l d a p p e a r t o b e a at t r a ct iv e c o a ch in g me t h o d i n t e r ms o f i t s e d u c a t i o n a l v al u e f o r b o t h co a c h e s an d a t h l et e s a s w e l l a s i t s p r a c ti c a l ity i n co mp e t i ti v e a c h i ev e me n t . H o w e v e r, co n s i d e ri n g th e l i mi t a ti o n s n o t e d b y L e n k , i t i s n o t a p e r f e c t co ac h in g me t h o d . It c an b e ap p l ie d u n con dition ally to any ty p e of su bject as it on ly fun c tion s as a sort o f p o w er f u l sti mu l u s .
I t i s co n cl u d e d i n t w o p o i n t s . F i r st , L en k ’s wo rk h a s sh o w n u s t h at t h e r e i s a c o a ch i n g sty l e t h at c a n en h a n c e p e r fo r ma n c e w i th o u t r e so rt in g to co rp o ra l p u n i sh men t and v io l en ce. Th at sty l e is c a l l e d d e m o c r a t i c c o a c h i n g . S e c o n d , i t h a s a l s o s h o wn u s h o w t e a m c o n s e n s u s c a n b e r e a c h e d t h r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n a n d d i a l o g , wh i ch c an a l so h el p t o n u r t u r e i n t el l e ct u a l a c t i v i t i e s a mo n g a t h l et e s . Sp o r t p e r fo rma n c e a n d i n t el l e ctu al a c t i v i t i e s a r e n o r ma l l y r eg a r d ed a s v e r y d i ff e r e n t t h i n g s . H o w e v e r, b o t h q u a l i t i e s m a y b e e n h an ce d t h r o u g h t h e wo r k i n g o f d i s c u ss i o n an d d i a l o g . T h i s d o e s n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o a p o s s e s s i o n o f k n o wl e d g e . I t i s t h e f o st e r in g o f th in k i n g sk i ll s t h at in v o lv e s t h e d i s co v ery a n d r e s o l u t i o n o f p ro b l e ms . D e mo c r at i c c o a c h i n g i s u l t i ma t e l y a t r ain i n g me t h o d fo r th o s e th in k in g sk i ll s .
49
To d ay, a s co mp u t e r s ea r c h sy s t ems c o n t in u e to d e v el o p , k n o w l ed g e al o n e i s n o lo n g er ad eq u at e f o r t h e wo rk fo r c e . A t t h e s a me t ime , t h e n u mb e r o f n ew p r o b l e ms s e e ms t o r i s e . I t c an n o t b e so l v e d t h r o u g h t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f k n o w l ed g e . A t t h e p r es e n t t i me , t h e edu c a t i o n al me t h o d t h a t f o c u s e s o n t h e a c q ui r ing o f kno w l edg e i s th e mo s t w id e sp r e ad me t h o d i n th e w o r ld , and it h a s b e e n p r a c t i c e d th ro ugh ou t h i sto ry. Ho wev er, in mo d e rn so ci ety, th is k n o w l ed g e- b a s ed e d u c a t i o n h a s g r e a t l i mi ta t i o n s i n b o th v o c at io n a l an d mo r a l e d u c at i o n . I n t h e s e c i r c u ms t a n c e s , t h e t r a i n i n g o f d i s cu s s i o n a n d d i a l o g t h r o u g h d emo c r a t i c co a c h i n g h as b e c o me imp o r t a n t fo r th e c a r ee r p l an n in g a n d c h a r a c t e r b u i l d in g o f m o d e r n a t h l e t e s i n t h e p r e se n t d ay, ev e n mo r e s o c o mp a r e d t o t h e l a t e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s w h en H a n s L en k f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e d i t .
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