An Overview of the Google Books Project
and Other Digitization Initiatives:
Implications for Libraries
Books 及其他數位化專案對圖書館的蘊義
Rosemary Spellman
Library Assistant II,Libraries Service Center,
Johns Hopkins University,U.S.A.
Email: rspellm3@jhu.edu
Robe前 P. Holley
Professor,School of Library and Information Science,
Wayne State University,U.S.A.
Email: aa3805@wayne.edu
Keywords (關鍵詞)
:
Google Books; Collection Development (館藏發展);
DigitizationPr叫 ects (數位化專案)
;
Digital Resources (數位化資源)<
Abstract>
This paper analyzes the e行ects of Google
Books upon collection development efforts in academic libraries. Other mass digitization
pr吋ectsare also briefly discussed. The focus
is on the hurdles that these projects face
such as copyright questions, long-term
technological planning, and continuing
permanent funding. The authors also
examine the role of digitization pr吋ects as a
form of preservation and/or conservation.
Finally, the paper looks at the culture of
libraries, how use of library materials may
change as a result of these pr吋ec峙. gives
some ideas of how the public will want to
access information, and presents some
thoughts about how libraries can maintain their relevance even as the public has access to a wealth of digital resources.
【摘要】 本文分析了 Google Books 對學術圖書館館 藏發展的影響，並概述了其他大規模數位化的 專案。本文重點在民對這些數位化專案所面臨 的障礙之探討，如版權問題、長程技術規劃、 和持久性資金憊款。作者也探討了這些數位化 專案對圖書館館藏保存和保護所扮演的角 色。文章最後審視了這些專案將如何改變公眾 對圖書館資源的使用和獲取資訊的需求，並提 供圖書館在面臨大量開放性豐富數位資源的 情況下，如何保持其職能相關性之幾點思考。
Introduction
Google Books has certainly capωred the public's
attention, especially considering the number of
lawsuits that have been brought against Google for
various claims of copyright in什ingement. This paper
gives an overview of this project and a few other mass
digitizationinitiativ郎，discusses some of the technical
and copyright issues,shows how digital archives can
function both for access and for preservation,provides
a brief overview of the culture surrounding libraries as
well as that of the general public, and, finally, the
evaluates these digitization projects with an emphasis
on how Google Books has,and will continue to,affect
collection development in large academic libraries.
Overall, we think that Google Books will have a
positive effect upon collection development but with some caveats that will be explained in this paper.
Several mass digitization initiatives are already underway. A few have made headlines while others are working in the shadows. Many are freely available to the public or freely available at libraries. Some of the
larger players are Google,the Internet Archive,and the
Open Content Alliance. Other smaller projects,which
often focus on more specific areas,are useful to their
subscribers even if they do not have a big name sponsoring them.
Overview of Projects
All of this started in 1989 with the Library of
Congress and its “American Memory Project," which
attempted to see if there would be an audience for
“intellectual content in digital form." (Fineberg,2009).
Obviously,time has shown that there is an audience
and a market willing to pay for such materials,
although free information is always prefeπed. Some
smaller projects include one from the Library of
Congress, called
“仕ee巳， national, searchable database of historic
American newspaper pages published between
1880-1992"(Finebe嗯，2009). Wayne State University
contributed a selection of film negatives that comprise
the “Vi巾al Motor City" collection (Pruzin, 2010). A
similarpr句ectat the British Library seeks“to digitize
40 million historic pages" from their collection of
newspapers(“B吋 tishLibrary",2010). Other initiatives
include Project Gutenberg, the Universal Library
Project/Million Book Project, and the International
Children's Digital Library (Lackie,2008).
Larger projects include JSTOR, Project Muse and
the Internet Archive, which not only digitizes books
but also archives websites with the Wayback Machine. Two of the largest ventures are the Google Books and
the Open Content Alliance,which has the backing of
Microsoft and Yahoo. Some initiatives focus on access to content by working to make OPACs widely available with projects such as OAlster and Open
Library (Hutton, 2008; Lackie, 2008). HathiTrust's
goal is to be a major access point as well as acting as a digital archive for materials for these above mentioned
projects to access(Wille鈍， 2009).
The threem勾 orplayers to be discussed in this paper
are Google Books,the Internet Archive,and the Open
Content Alliance. Google, starting with only five
libraries,has said that it would“cost $10 [each] to scan
the 15 million documents set for digitization,and that
the process could take a decade or more" (Flagg,
2005a). The Internet Archive operates all over the United Sates with special scanning stations and allows users to submit works of their own to the Archive. The
Open Content Alliance was created partially as
challenge to Google. It has more international input and is also searchable across multiple search engines whereas Google Books is only available via Google
(Crawford, 2006). The Open Content Alliance also
“will scan and digitize only texts in the public domain,
except where the copyright holder has expressly given
permission" (Flagg,2005b).
Google Books has been criticized for being
Anglo-centric. The problem arose from the tentative
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“library digital copies" (Grogg & Ashmore, 2007;
Fialkoff,2008).
As an example of the issues that using Google
Books might create for libraries, in 200 I, Shuler
presented a study of a possible future for the federal
government depository model. While we feel that the
depository model still has some value, it may change
企om having depositories of physical materials to
having depositories of electronic materials. However,
for such a sort of “electronic depository" truly to
become a reality, libraries must be able to rely on
stable Internet access and be able to educate users on how to use the various services and projects that are
available. Since library budgets are,at best,remaining
stable but, more often, being cut; having a large
electronic collection may not be something that a
library can a叮ord. K.ichuk (20 10) thinks that higher
costs and economic troubles are what is keeping
"universal accessibility" at bay and“if a library cannot
provide electronic content,patrons will go elsewhere'\
Some believe that,if large research libraries never
weed and then participate in a mass digitization project,
there will be an imbalance of access to outdated
information before current information is found
(Tenna肘，2005). Another technical challenge is merely
finding the desired information. While WorldCat has
long been held up as sort of “one-stop shopping,"
sometImes
“
digital collections were frequentlyrepresented...as a single record for an entire collection"
(Hutton,2008). Also,Willett (2009) says that“there is
no central service or discovery tool for an end user to discover whether or not a particular book or journal has been digitized by one of these projects." Legal
challenges have certainly changed Google Books,but
it is impo口ant to remember that technological issues
also come into play for such a long-term project as this
one. With a 27% “average net annual growth rate"
(Kichuk,20 I0) for electronic resources,all these issues
reqUIre attentIOn.
Electronic Collections and Storage
As more and more materials become available
online,electronic collections are now considered to be
more valuable than print versions ofthe same materials
When working with or creating an electronic collection,
one important task is to plan for the long termfuωreIn
the same way that that preservation was an important
consideration for print materials. However,“the fact
that increasingly more information is moving from
paper to electronic form,and is correspondingly more
accessible,does not obviate the need for a permanent
record and ongoing availability" (Barnes, 1997). This
is especially true when one considers that any
digitization project could suddenly cease without warning and that those digitized materials might be
lost. While the InternetArchi珊 's “WaybackMachine"
archives Web sites, this data could be lost if the
website is not“crawled" frequently enough or if the
data is housed in a database-backed Website
inaccessible to the Web crawlers as well as for other
less common reasons (Szydlowski,20 10).The Internet
Archive's FAQ section describes how people can
exclude their site using a robots.txt file but also
discusses that“dynamic" pages that use coding other
than HTML can be improperly archived, if they are
even able to be archived at all(Internet Archive,n.d.).
Digitization projects must have some form of stable
funding because,if a project is only funded by a grant
or from extra money in operational budgets, the
likelihood of an electronic collection disappearing
increases (Davis
,
2009). Libraries that have disposedof paper copies of journals when a digital copy became available should be concerned about the potentially fragile future of digital copies because most producers
make “no assurance of long-term availability of the
journals" (Bam郎， 1997). Libraries are inclined to
weed print copies that have digital alternatives to make more room available in the library for new materials and for other uses such as increased study space
(Adams, 2009). Another advantage of digital
collections is that “digitization also enables the
re-unification of collections and items that were
conceived together, but have become physically
separated" (Brindley, 2009). Researchers, who may
have had otherwise to travel to many different sites in
order to consult needed research materials, especially
benefit from such digitization projects.
While materials are increasingly being digitized and,
in some cases, born digitally, it is important to
remember that digital collections are not as permanent as people may think they are. Libraries should take this
into account whenever considering projects like
Google Books. If libraries decide to undertake their
own digitization projects, they face the same
challenges with regards to copyright and technical
issues. Only long-term planning for digital
preservation and careful analysis of the items to be weeded in favor of electronic copies will keep any sort
of electronic collection,even one created by the library
itself,in good working order and available for users in
the distant future.
Digitization as Preservation
Some argue that digitization is a way of preserving
materials for thefutu悶;but it may not be a good first
line of defense, especially with the possibility of
coπuption of digital copies and the issue of
technological format changes. On the other hand,
digital copies are one option when planning for disasters since they can be easily stored in an off-site location and most often take up less space than their
physical counteφarts. Palmer (2008) suggests that
having redundant copies and well thought out plans along with stable digitization policies and procedures will help assure the most consistent practice over time. Section 108 of the Copyright Act allows libraries to
have more than one copy of an item, which is
especially important since libraries often need to have
“an ‘iron mountain' copy, a master copy, and a use
copy, with only the use copy accessible at anyone
time" (American Library Association,n.d.).
Nonetheless, digitization has positive aspects for
preservation and conservation. Ceynowa (2009) states
that
“
the digitization by Google thus serves thepu中ose of collection conservation [since] information
contained in the threatened books can be saved." The Library of Congress has adopted this strategy for some
of its more brittle items (Swartz,2007). Having digital
copies is a good way to preserve fragile documents because these copies allow multiple users to access documents that would be too fragile to examine
physically. Preservation,however,is a side benefit of
many digital initiatives. Capell (20 I0) says that,while
digitization can help preservation goals,“the driving
factor behind most digitization efforts is ready remote
availability." Certainly,Google did not initiate Google
Books primarily to help libraries preserve their
collections; but libraries should not overlook this added benefit since many books are at or near the point where they can no longer be handled without damage.
The dig>tization of documents that are considered to
have “intrinsic value" is also helpful in preserving
items that are important enough to maintain in whatever original format they happen to be. The National Archives and Records Administration has detailed information about the definition of documents
having “intrinsic value" (National Archives and
Records Administration, 1999). Coyle (2006) also
points out that “the production of a
preservation-quality copy is somewhat contrary to the
desire to digitize whole libraries quickly and
inexpensively with the least amount of human
intervention." While these two ideas are not
completely at odds with one another,some documents
may require greater care than others. In the end, to
avoid fuωre problems, the goals of any digitization
project,be it for a few hundred or a few million items,
must be clearly defined before a single page is scanned.
As with all digital projec俗， the problems of data
formatting and redundancy must be dealt with in order
to create a solution that will withstand the challenges
of time. Shuler (200 I) says that, no matter what,
electronic information “must be durable, authentic,
have validi旬， and [be] permeable." Adams (2009)
suggests that libraries might even be able to take a
more active role and become a“publishers" of digital
materials,although this fails to take into account the
potentially murky financial and legal situations that
would inevitably occur. Technical issues w>II likely
forever dog the heels of any efforts to make
digitization a first-line of defense against the
carelessness of users and the ravages time upon
materials,but digitization clearly has somepa口 toplay
in protecting fragile documents.
Culture of Libraries
In a world where digitization is becoming
increasingly popular and where an increasing number
of documents exist only in a digital form, libraries
must adapt to this situation and be willing to work with users to create a viable future. What will be the role of
libraries in this future? If libraries are merely
warehouses, then they can become data farms with
nothing but racks and racks of servers holding electronic copies of materials for access by users all
over the world. If,on the other hand,“libraries exist to
preserve society's cultural artifacts and to provide
access to them," (Proskine, 2006) then a different
approach must be taken to adapt to the increasing emphasis on electronic materials. There is also the potential for a compromise where libraries continue to serve as access points for materials held by others.
As one example,the Internet Archive considers Web
pages to be an important cultural artifact and therefore keeps copies of previous versions for the future. Dye
(2006) says that“the goal of a research library...is to
secure, preserve, and archive knowledge--all of 此，
because...if we don't preserve and protect it,no one
else will."Once again,Google has become part ofthis
process with its book scanning though they claim to
want to be only an indexing service and not necessarily provide access to the materials. Goog1e does provide access in the sense that they give links for users to find
copies of the materials they see on their screens,even
if only as a snippet.Thus,Google should be considered
to be an impo前ant potential partner for any sort of
hωreprojects,especially for research libraries as they
face budget challenges that may cause problems with
providing access to materials, especially ones that
require supervision while being used. If an electronic
copy is readily available, users can access that copy
whenever and wherever they so choose,which frees up
staff time for other projects
The availability of digitized Google books may lead
to a“just in time versus just in case" change in how
libraries provide access to books. Barnes(1997) states
that with this change in thinking,one must separate the
issues of“access" versus“ownership." Ifusers are able
to download a copy of a particular book to their computer (as Google Books allows for some items as
well as does the Internet Archive,among others),the
question of ownership becomes a bit trickier. Is a
digital copy enough to constitute “ownership" of an
item? With the increasing usage of devices such as
Kindles and Nooks to license e-books, obviously
people are beginning to consider a digital copy to be good enough to be considered owned. When items are
available from a different library,even ones across the
world, access is something that becomes more
important, especially for those who may be doing
research in areas that require travel to where the
particular item is physically available but the
researcher cannot easily afford the trip. Another twist
is that
“
evidence is mounting that any material that isnot available in digital form does not get used" (Hahn,
2006). Students and researchers have come to expect
materials to be available digitally. Library
expenditures indicate this change. Martell (2007)
shows that “expenditures for electronic serials
increased 2,175 percent" between 1995 and 2004.
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