The Role of Culture in the Acceptance of Online Social Networks’ for Organizational Staffing Activities by HR Practitioners

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(1)The Role of Culture in the Acceptance of Online Social Networks’ for Organizational Staffing Activities by HR Practitioners. By Karen Rocío Castellanos Gossmann. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of. MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION. Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: C. Rosa Yeh, Ph. D.. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan June, 2013.

(2) ABSTRACT This research was based on the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), which theorized on how perception of a system’s usefulness, ease of use and other’s influence affect the intention to use a system. The system in question is online social networks. The role of culture as a moderator was studied. The effect of perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and subjective norms on HR practitioners’ behavioral intention to use online social networks in their staffing activities were studied, with Hofstede´s dimensions of culture as moderators. HR practitioners in Taiwan, India, Spain and Guatemala were the target sample of this study. Contact information was gathered through company websites or through the researcher’s online and personal social networks. Respondents were asked to complete an online questionnaire to assess both their espoused cultural values and their perception toward online social networks for staffing activities. A total of 101 valid responses were collected for data analysis. Partial least square structural equation modeling techniques were used to test study hypotheses. Results indicated that, as hypothesized, the TAM model was effective in explaining HR practitioners’ behavioral intention to use online social networks for staffing activities. In addition, uncertainty avoidance was found to moderate the relationship between perceived usefulness as well as perceived ease of use and behavioral intention. Power distance also was found to moderate the relationship between subjective norms and behavioral intention. On the contrary, espoused masculinity/femininity and individualism/collectivism values were not found to moderate any of the relationships hypothesized. Keywords: Online social networks, TAM, culture, HR practitioners. I.

(3) TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract .................................................................................................................................. I Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………… II List of Tables ....................................................................................................................... IV List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... VI. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ......................................................................1 Background of the Study ................................................................................................................ 1 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................................... 2 Rationale ......................................................................................................................................... 3 Purpose ........................................................................................................................................... 4 Research Questions ........................................................................................................................ 5 Scope of the Study .......................................................................................................................... 6 Contribution of the Study ............................................................................................................... 6 Definition of Terms ........................................................................................................................ 7. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ..........................................................9 A New Technology: The Online Social Networks ......................................................................... 9 Social Networks and HR .............................................................................................................. 10 The Technology Acceptance Model ............................................................................................. 13 The Cultural Construct ................................................................................................................. 17 Technology Acceptance and Culture ............................................................................................ 20 Development of Hypotheses ......................................................................................................... 21. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY .................................................................29 Research Framework .................................................................................................................... 29 Hypotheses ................................................................................................................................... 30 Research Procedure ...................................................................................................................... 32 Research Design ........................................................................................................................... 33 Sample Setting .............................................................................................................................. 34 Measurement ................................................................................................................................ 34 TAM ......................................................................................................................................... 34 Culture ...................................................................................................................................... 36 Data Collection ............................................................................................................................. 39 Sample Profile .............................................................................................................................. 40 II.

(4) Data Analysis Procedure .............................................................................................................. 42. CHAPTER IV DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS ....................................61 Correlation Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 61 Model Testing in PLS ................................................................................................................... 64. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSIONS ................................81 Conclusions .................................................................................................................................. 81 Discussion..................................................................................................................................... 83 Research Implications .................................................................................................................. 84 Practical Implications ................................................................................................................... 85 Limitations.................................................................................................................................... 86 Future Research Suggestions ........................................................................................................ 88. REFERENCES ................................................................................................91 APPENDIX: QUESTIONNAIRE ..................................................................97. III.

(5) LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1. TAM Moderators…………………………………………….....................16. Table 3.1. Hofstede’s five dimensions of culture and its given scores….....................34. Table 3.2. TAM Questionnaire Scales………………………………………….…….35. Table 3.3. Culture Questionnaire Scales………………………………………….......37. Table 3.4. Descriptive Statistics of the sample (N=101)……….……….....................41. Table 3.5. Rotated Component Matrix TAM……………………….………………...45. Table 3.6. Rotated Component Matrix Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions……..……...46. Table 3.7. Original CFA results: evidence of opposite loadings on BI………………48. Table 3.8. Descriptive Statistics, Factor Loadings, Composite Reliability, AVE and Items of Studied Construct BI1……...........................................50. Table 3.9. Descriptive Statistics, Factor Loadings, Composite Reliability, AVE and Items of Studied Construct BI1……………...............................................52. Table 3.10. Factor Loading and Cross-Loadings among the variables BI1…...…........55. Table 3.11. Factor Loading and Cross-Loadings among the variables BI2…...…........56. Table 3.12. Cronbach’s Alpha…………...……………………………………..……...58. Table 3.13. Overview of AVE and Discriminant Validity Testing Among the Constructs BI1………………………………………………………………………...59. Table 4.1. Means, Standard Deviations and Correlation Coefficients…...…………..63. Table 4.2. Path Coefficients, T-statistics for Hypothesis 1 to 3 BI1………..………..65. Table 4.3. Path Coefficients, T-statistics for Hypothesis 1 to 3 BI2………..………..65. Table 4.4. Path Coefficients, T-statistics for Hypothesis 4 Model BI1…………........66. Table 4.5. Path Coefficients, T-statistics for Hypothesis 4 Model BI2…………........66. Table 4.6. Path Coefficients, T-statistics for Hypothesis 5a Model BI1…..……........67. Table 4.7. Path Coefficients, T-statistics for Hypothesis 5a Model BI2…..……........68. Table 4.8. Path Coefficients, T-statistics for Hypothesis 5b Model BI1………..........69 IV.

(6) Table 4.9. Path Coefficients, T-statistics for Hypothesis 5b Model BI2………..........69. Table 4.10. Path Coefficients, T-statistics for Hypothesis 5c Model BI1…,…….........70. Table 4.11. Path Coefficients, T-statistics for Hypothesis 5c Model BI2…,…….........70. Table 4.12. Path Coefficients, T-statistics for Hypothesis 6 Model BI1…………........71. Table 4.13. Path Coefficients, T-statistics for Hypothesis 6 Model BI2…………........72. Table 4.14. Path Coefficients, T-statistics for Hypothesis 7a Model BI1…..……........73. Table 4.15. Path Coefficients, T-statistics for Hypothesis 7a Model BI2…..……........73. Table 4.16. Path Coefficients, T-statistics for Hypothesis 7b Model BI1…..……........74. Table 4.17. Path Coefficients, T-statistics for Hypothesis 7b Model BI2…..……........74. Table 4.18. Path Coefficients, T-statistics for Hypothesis 7c Model BI1…..……........75. Table 4.19. Path Coefficients, T-statistics for Hypothesis 7c Model BI2…..……........76. Table 4.20. Hypotheses Testing Results Summary……………………………………..77. V.

(7) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1. Research Framework……………………………………………………..29. Figure 3.2. Research Procedure…………………………………………...………….33. Figure 4.1. Hypothesis 1-3 Model BI1…………………………………...…………..65. Figure 4.2. Hypothesis 1-3 Model BI2…………………………………...…………..65. Figure 4.3. Hypothesis 4 Model BI1……………………………………...…….…….67. Figure 4.4. Hypothesis 4 Model BI2……………………………………...…….…….67. Figure 4.5. Hypothesis 5a Model BI1…..………………………………...…….…….68. Figure 4.6. Hypothesis 5a Model BI2…..………………………………...…….…….68. Figure 4.7. Hypothesis 5b Model BI1…..………………………………...…….…….69. Figure 4.8. Hypothesis 5b Model BI2…..………………………………...…….…….69. Figure 4.9. Hypothesis 5c Model BI1…..………………………………...…….…….71. Figure 4.10. Hypothesis 5c Model BI2…..………………………………...…….…….71. Figure 4.11. Hypothesis 6 Model BI1……………………………………...…….…….72. Figure 4.12. Hypothesis 6 Model BI2……………………………………...…….…….72. Figure 4.13. Hypothesis 7a Model BI1…..………………………………...…….…….73. Figure 4.14. Hypothesis 7a Model BI2…..………………………………...…….…….73. Figure 4.15. Hypothesis 7b Model BI1…..………………………………...…….…….75. Figure 4.16. Hypothesis 7b Model BI2…..………………………………...…….…….75. Figure 4.17. Hypothesis 7c Model BI1…..………………………………...…….…….76. Figure 4.18. Hypothesis 7c Model BI2…..………………………………...…….…….76. Figure 4.19. Hypotheses Testing Summary Model BI1……………………………….79. Figure 4.20. Hypotheses Testing Summary Model BI2……………………………….79. VI.

(8) CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Globalization is today’s reality, thus businesses need to compete in a global environment and the implications of this environment create pressing needs to further investigation of how different cultures react to different technologies. Online social networks usage is increasing day by day and it could become a valuable tool for Human Resource Professionals. However, it is important that we first understand whether the use of this system is accepted in the professional context. System acceptance and usage is increasingly viewed as an important element for the measurement of information systems success (DeLone & McLean, 1992). A vast body of research has been conducted on the acceptance and use of information technology. The most researched model has been the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) developed by Davis (1989). This model states that a high perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use will yield through the intention to use an actual usage of a new technology. The work of Davis (1989) has been replicated and the results have proven that the model holds for different technologies, persons, settings and times (Straub, Keil & Brenner, 1997). However, as technologies have evolved new studies continue to be conducted in order to see if the model still holds for these newer technologies.. Background of the Study The past studies that have been conducted on the use of online social networks as a tool in the Human Resource field have been limited to specific geographic areas. For example, Vicknair, Elkersh, Yancey and Budden (2010) conducted a research on this topic in the United States, while Henderson and Bowley (2010) also conducted a study 1.

(9) on the use of social media for a recruitment campaign in New Zealand. However, no comparison has been done to gain a global insight on the topic. These social network websites were created with the purpose of socializing, sharing pictures with friends, updating statuses and writing messages on other people’s wall. Online networks add an important social factor to the equation, because different cultures will have different perceptions on privacy issues, on sharing information online and on the virtual socialization; this as a result will have its effect on how these cultures accept this newer technology. Furthermore, it is important to evaluate online social networks technologies in the workplace setting, and how these come in as tools to assist in the staffing activities of organizations. More and more companies today are using Facebook, one of the most popular social networking sites today, for staffing activities. Some use it for attracting new, particularly college-aged, recruits, in which they allow people to post questions on the company’s Facebook profile and the company also updates information on new positions and internship opportunities (White, 2007). A study conducted by Careerbuilder.com, a very popular job site in the United States, found that “Nearly two in five companies (37 percent) use social networking sites to research job candidates. Of the employers who do not research candidates on social media, 15 percent said their company prohibits the practice. Eleven percent report they do not currently use social media to screen, but plan to start” (Careerbuilder.com, 2012).. Statement of the Problem An understanding of the acceptance of the online social networks in the workplace is important. These social networks could become a tool in the performance of staffing 2.

(10) activities within an organization. Online social networks offer benefits such as low costs for both screening and reaching candidates because one can have access to a candidate’s profile without having to pay any fees; besides, advertisements can also be paid to promote one’s company’s available positions. Massive reach of candidates is also another benefit for HR practitioners since the number of people using social networks is very high. Finally, it is also a rapid communication medium, some people today check their profiles more than their email accounts. So far, there is little knowledge on how this new technology is being utilized by HR professionals, as well as the differences on its use by different cultures. A better understanding on this issue could provide HR professionals with a clearer perspective on how to help themselves with this new tool or even gain awareness of the use of this technology to perform staffing activities in the organization.. Rationale Previous studies have been done on the use of the online social networks in the human resource field. However, these studies haven’t applied the Technology Acceptance Model to understand the acceptance of this new technology. It is important that a model such as TAM is used because this model provides more structure to the study. By utilizing a model that has been used many times before, we can confirm that the use of newer technology is still affected by perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and subjective norms. Today, social networking sites have taken an important place in peoples’ lives, according to Facebook’s “About” section on their website, by March 2012 it had over 900 million active users (Facebook.com, 2013), which made it the largest existing. 3.

(11) social network, and also why the focus of this research will be on this particular network. A study on the acceptance of technology and the moderating effects of culture was conducted by Srite and Karahanna (2006). This study considered both personal computers and personal digital assistants as the target technologies. However, this study was conducted on an international students sample, which doesn’t allow it to generalize the results to an industrial sample. The study also attempted to analyze the effect of culture. However, even though the students used in this study came from different countries, the fact that they were all living in a foreign country could affect their views on their culture of origin because they have already gone through an adaptation process to the host culture. This study gained a better understanding of the acceptance of the online social networks in the staffing activities of organizations and how the relationship between acceptance and behavioral intention to use this technology is affected by culture.. Purpose The main purposes of this study were to: 1.. Examine the relationship between the adopted cultural values and the. acceptance of online social networks within the Human Resource professionals. Specifically to conduct the staffing activities of the organization. 2.. To re-examine the TAM and see if it can be applied to the HR professionals in. the use of the social network technology. Specifically to conduct the staffing activities of the organization.. 4.

(12) Research Questions This study answers the following questions: 1. What is the relationship between perceived usefulness of social networking websites and the behavioral intention to use it for staffing activities?. 2. What is the relationship between perceived ease of use of social networking websites and the behavioral intention to use it for staffing activities?. 3. What is the relationship between subjective norms of social networking websites and the behavioral intention to use it for staffing activities?. 4. Is the relationship between perceived usefulness and behavioral intention to use social networking websites for staffing activities moderated by the espoused national cultural values?. 5. Is the relationship between perceived ease of use and behavioral intention to use social networking websites for staffing activities moderated by the espoused national cultural values?. 6. Is the relationship between subjective norms and behavioral intention to use social networking websites for staffing activities moderated by the espoused national cultural values?. 5.

(13) Scope of the Study This study collected data from human resource practitioners in four different countries, thus the results of this study will only apply to human resource practitioners and cannot be generalized to other samples. Even though a range of countries was examined it cannot be assumed that the results will be generalizable to the world population. Furthermore, this study only considered Hofstede’s dimensions of culture, so other cultural aspects not included in these dimensions don’t apply to this study.. Contribution of the Study This study contributes to the existing literature on the Technology Acceptance Model. This model has been researched for different technologies. However online social networks are a new technology, so no studies have been done on its acceptance for staffing activities. Furthermore, the aspect of culture has not been considered and it could be a critical aspect on its acceptance. Besides, most of the previous studies have been conducted in an academic sample, researching only students and academic personnel. Further research in the workplace settings will bring a clearer picture of the acceptance of technology in both industrial and academic samples. This study researched four countries with different cultural values according to Hofstede’s national culture scores. The study participants’ espoused cultural values were measured and compare to the acceptance of the new technology. This contributes to the creation of a more comprehensive research on the cultural aspects of technology acceptance. 6.

(14) According to the author’s knowledge there is no existing research like this one, and no studies have been done on the technology acceptance in the Human Resource field.. Definition of Terms Online Social Networks: are online communities that help people interact with each other and build communities of people that share the same interests (Kluemper & Rosen, 2009; Smith & Kidder, 2010). Social networking sites also give users a platform which serves as a means of self-expression and helps people create a social sphere (Grubbs & Milne, 2010). Perceived Usefulness: “is the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her job performance” (Davis, 1985, p. 26). Perceived Ease of Use: “is the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free of effort” (Davis, 1985, p. 26). Subjective Norms: “are a person’s perception that most people who are important to him think he should or should not perform the behavior in question” (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975, p. 302). Cultural Dimensions: . Individualism/Collectivism: this dimension discusses how different societies handle their relationship between the individual and the collectivity. It defines the relationships and the importance placed on the individual versus the group (Hofstede, 1980).. 7.

(15) . Uncertainty Avoidance: this dimension discusses how different societies handle uncertainty about the future; it includes the discomfort with the unknown and the desire to reduce ambiguity (Hofstede, 1980).. . Power Distance: this dimension discusses how different societies handle inequality; Hofstede claims that inequality can occur in areas such as prestige, wealth, and power (Hofstede, 1980).. . Masculinity/Femininity: this dimension discusses how different societies are encouraged to be more goal-oriented or more socially oriented. It discusses both sides of the continuum where in some societies power, achievement and success are more important than caring, consensus and relationships (Hofstede, 1980).. . Long-term/Short-term Orientation: this dimension is based on items of the Confucius teachings, it discusses how different societies value persistence, and thrift to personal stability and respect for tradition, (Hofstede & Bond, 1988).. 8.

(16) CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW A New Technology: The Online Social Networks The technology that applied to this study was social networks. The interest towards this technology rose from its increased usage in the last few years. The usage has not only increased in the average person but it has also influenced some business models and how people interact with each other in the workplace. These online communities have helped people to interact with each other and build online communities of people that share the same interests (Kluemper & Rosen, 2009; Smith & Kidder, 2010). There are various activities that can be performed in a social networking site, e.g. people can upload pictures and videos, share status updates, share location updates, being tagged in others’ pictures and videos, share links and information, etc. All the content in the social networking sites is user driven, which means that all the content uploaded in a person’s profile has been provided by this user or friends of the user. Grubbs and Milne (2010) note that social networks give the users a platform which serves as a means of self-expression, and this websites also helps people create a social sphere. Some researchers claim that for young users Facebook plays the role of an anchor, and young users tend to create identities that are their desired selves; they misrepresent themselves with the hope that they will soon become that person presented in their online profiles (Zhao, Grasmuck, & Martin, 2008). Social networking sites help people connect to people they already know as well as to make connections through friends of friends (Kluemper & Rosen, 2009). People connect to each other through the social networks by inviting others to become their 9.

(17) friends as by receiving friend requests’ by others. People need to approve these requests for the profile information of this user to become available to the other party (Boyd, 2007). Online social networks have been the center of many discussions and debates, issues such as privacy and ethics have been raised in such discussions.. Social Networks and HR According to the current information, Facebook is the most popular social network site. There are over two hundred social networking sites, that differ in their focus and their audience. There are sites for specific countries such as China, South Korea and Norway to mention some. There are also sites that focus on traveling, cooking, sports, and others. However, the final purpose of all is to facilitate users socialize and share common interests. According to Hachman (2012), “Facebook number of users’ has reached 901 million worldwide by April 2012, up 32.5 percent from the same period in year 2011. The company's daily active users, meanwhile, increased to 526 million, up 41.4 percent” (para. 3). Facebook was created in 2004 by a Harvard student for intra-campus socialization; Facebook quickly spread to other university campuses and soon became the most popular social networking site among college students in the US (Cassidy, 2006). There are many other social network sites, such as LinkedIn. According to the “About Us” section in the website as of August, 2012, LinkedIn operates the world’s largest professional network on the Internet with more than 175 million members in over 200 countries and territories. LinkedIn was officially launched on May 5, 2003. At. 10.

(18) the end of the first month in operation, LinkedIn had a total of 4,500 members in the network and as time has passed their members have increased (LinkedIn.com, 2012). This website has a lot of the same features of Facebook; however it tries to create professional connections and is more business oriented; this website also offers the advantage to users that they can create professionally-oriented searches. According to Alexa.com, a webpage information company, Facebook is the number one ranked webpage, even in front of the renowned search engine Google. LinkedIn is ranked number 12; this website presents us with clear evidence of the importance of these websites in people’s day to day lives (Alexa.com, 2009). Social networking sites have become extremely popular among human resource practitioners; Careerbuilder.com (2012) conducted a survey in which companies acknowledged of their use of social networking sites to research their job candidates. Of the companies that reported not to use these sites many of them reported a willingness to use them in the near future; some others reported that their companies already prohibit the practice of researching candidates through these social sites. Many Human Resource practitioners have decided to employ the new practice of researching their candidates through these social networks in order to get a clearer and broader perspective on their job applicants. Some companies claim to research a candidate before they are called for an interview and others after the interview to corroborate information provided by the candidates. Social networks have proven to be a valuable tool to get a better perspective on the job applicants, and Human Resource practitioners claim that the information gathered. 11.

(19) on the social networks has helped them improve their hiring decisions. (Athavaley, 2007; Matejkovic & Matejkovic, 2006; Murphy, 2007) Besides utilizing the social networks to research candidates, they are also being utilized by HR practitioners to reach potential candidates and communicate with them. Sometimes candidates decide to reach a company they believe is desirable to work for through their company’s social network profile; these profiles serve as a platform for candidates to communicate with potential employers and for employers to communicate with potential candidates. Daniel (2005) and Doherty (2010) have claimed in their studies that the use of social networking sites also helps employers to reach those passive job seekers (those who are currently employed and not looking for a job, highly qualified, without updated CV). This is why many employers rely on information on the social networks because this is the information that is mostly up to date and most accurate because it has been provided by the owner of the profile. The use of social networks has also been validated; Kluemper & Rosen (2009) conducted a study on evaluating the effectiveness of using social networks for screening candidates. In their study they trained people to read profiles and then these people were asked to make staffing decisions based on the social profile. People were able to accurately predict most of the profiles and to distinguish between high and low performers. This study provides a lot of value to the use of social networks in staffing organizations, since it shows that as long as people is provided with the right training they are able to use the social network to make more adequate decisions on the profile owners.. 12.

(20) Even though many HR practitioners are utilizing the social networks to conduct staffing activities for their organizations, the issue of ethics should also be raised, as people invade their candidates’ privacy in order to learn information from them. They are arriving at an existing gray area, where right and wrong is unclear. Studies have stated that “Employers may claim that it is fair to use Facebook to screen applicants, but they should be careful. Some believe that in the future the legal system will say the employer must show that such use of Facebook did not enter into its hiring decisions” (Lory, B. 2010, p. 40).. The Technology Acceptance Model There is a vast body of research in the Information Systems field to understand user acceptance of a new technology, it is said that it is one of the most mature areas of research in the IS literature (Hu, Chau, Sheng & Tan, 1999). Srite and Karahanna (2006) argue that of the various models used in IS to study acceptance of technology—the theory of reasoned action (TRA), the theory of planned behavior (TPB), and the technology acceptance model (TAM)—TAM is arguably the most widely accepted. Besides, Venkatesh (1999) argues that TAM compares favorably with alternative models such as the TRA and the TPB. The Technology Acceptance Model was developed by Davis (1985) as an attempt to improve our understanding of user acceptance process of a new technology and to provide theoretical basis for a practical methodology for testing user acceptance. This model incorporates factors such as perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, from here on referred to PU and PEOU respectively, to explain both the attitudes toward a new technology and the actual usage of the technology.. 13.

(21) “According to the model a potential user’s overall attitude toward using a given system is hypothesized to be a major determinant of whether or not he actually uses it. Attitude toward using, in turn, is a function of two major beliefs: perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. Perceived ease of use has a casual effect on perceived usefulness” (Davis, 1985 p. 24). The importance of this model is based on the fact that performance gains are often lost to the unwillingness of users to accept available systems that could help enhance their performance on the job (Bowen, 1986; Young, 1984). The model is based on two main beliefs. First, the belief that a system will help people to improve their job performance will increase their intention to use the system and actual use of the system. Second, the belief that a system is easy to use will increase their intention to use the system and actual use of the system. Davis (1985) defines these two beliefs as Perceived Usefulness and Perceived Ease of Use. PU is defined as “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her job performance”. PEOU on the other hand is defined as “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free of effort”. Besides, the model was based on the existing measurements of MIS success, such as actual system usage, user attitudes, and performance impacts. These measurements are the most accepted criteria for system success. (Alavy & Henderson, 1981; Bailey & Person, 1983; Ginzberg, 1981). TAM was extended to include both social influence processes (subjective norm, voluntariness, and image) and cognitive instrumental processes (job relevance, output. 14.

(22) quality, results demonstrability and perceived ease of use). This new model is now referred to as TAM2 (Venkatesh & Davis, 2000). The present study uses both the original TAM and one of the new constructs of the extended model TAM2, subjective norm. This construct has been chosen since online social networks are believed to possess a social aspect that could create an effect in the acceptance of this new technology. Subjective Norm, later referred to as SN, is defined as “a person’s perception that most people who are important to him think he should or should not perform the behavior in question” (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975, p. 302). In the case of online social networks, the consideration of other people thinking that the use of these networks will enhance the results of the staffing activities within the organization might increase the usage of the technology. The Behavioral Intention dimension is based on the Theory of Reasoned Action, it states that intentions lead to action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). It is assumed that people who intend to use a system will later perform a behavior of usage. TAM has been widely applied to a diverse set of technologies and users; for a summary on these studies refer to King and He (2006), who conducted a meta-analysis on TAM. Besides, there are studies that have been conducted to understand the moderating effects of factors such as age, gender, experience, voluntariness and culture in the technology acceptance sphere. Table 1 presents a summary of the variables that have been proposed and tested as moderators of immediate antecedents of behavioral intention.. 15.

(23) Table 2.1. TAM Moderators Moderator Experience. Relationship Moderated. Study. Experience found not to moderate Attitude- Bl Affect-Utilization. Davis et al., 1989 Karahanna et al., 1999; Taylor and Todd 1995; Thompson et al., 1994. SN-BI Social Factors-Utilization. Karahanna et al. 1999; Morris and Venkatesh 2000; Taylor and Todd 1995; Thompson et al. 1994; Venkatesh, Morris & Ackerman, 2000 Taylor and Todd 1995 Davis et al. 1989; Szajna 1996; Thompson Karahanna et al. 1994 1999. Perceived Usefulness – Bl Ease of Use- Bl Complexity Utilization Behavioral Beliefs-Attitude Long-term consequences-Utilization PBC- Bl Facilitating Conditions-Utilization Voluntariness. SN-BI. Gender. SN-BI. Hartwick and Barki 1994; Venkatesh and Davis 2000; Venkatesh, Morris a n d A c k e r m a n , 2000. Venkatesh, Morris and Ackerman 2000; Venkatesh et al., 2003. Attitude – Bl PBC- Bl Perceived Usefulness- Bl. Age. Gender x Age Age x Experience Gender x Age x Experience Gender x Age x Experience x Voluntariness. Thompson et al. 1994 Taylor and Todd 1995;Thompson et al. 1994. Perceived Ease of Use - Bl Attitude - System Use PBC - System Use SN -System Use Performance Expectancy- Bl. Venkatesh et al. 2003 Venkatesh et al. 2003 Venkatesh, Morris a n d A c k e r m a n , 2000 Venkatesh, Morris and Ackerman, 2000 Morris and Venkatesh 2000 Morris and Venkatesh 2000 Morris and Venkatesh 2000 Venkatesh et al. 2003. Facilitating Conditions - Use Behavior Effort Expectancy - Bl. Venkatesh et al. 2003 Venkatesh et al. 2003. Social Influence – Bl. Venkatesh et al. 2003. *SN =Subjective Norms; Bl =Behavioral Intention; PBC =Perceived Behavioral Control. Note. Taken from “The Role of Espoused National Cultural Values in Technology Acceptance,” by Srite, M. and Karahanna, E. 2006, MIS Quarterly, 30(3), p. 684.. 16.

(24) The Cultural Construct What is Culture? The most common definition of culture is that of Hofstede. To him, culture is “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from another” (Hofstede, 1980, p. 260). It is like saying that people are computers, every computer has different programs or software that will allow them to function in certain way, so culture is like those programs in people’s minds. These programs will make us react one way or another. Some cultures will be more conflict oriented while some others will be all about saving face. According to Hofstede (1980) culture exists in the second level of the human mental programming, which is the collective level. In this level we belong to some groups or categories, and this will make us act or behave like those in our group. He argues that at the collective level, we learned most of our mental programming, so this makes us behave like those around us. Even though Hofstede’s definition of culture is the most widely used, others have studied culture and have increased our understanding of the different aspects of culture. Geertz, a famous anthropologist, defined culture as “a historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which [individuals] communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life” (Geertz, 1973, p. 89). Clearly there are concepts shared in both definitions, Geertz referred to the inherited side of culture, which means that we learn a culture from our parents and these in turn learned it from their parents, and so on. This inherited concept of culture is very important and relevant. 17.

(25) Schein defined culture as “the sum total of all the shared, taken-for-granted assumptions that a group has learned throughout its history” (Schein, 1986, p. 29). Schein on the other hand raised the issue of taken-for-granted, as many others who have studied culture, he raised the issue of invisibility. Culture is difficult to see with our eyes and culture is something you experience and learn, since we learn culture in our day to day. We don’t see it and it is also difficult to define it or create delimitations to cultures. Schein (1994) further developed on the concept of taken-for-granted when he said that you can only understand a group’s culture when you immerse yourself in the culture for an extended period of time. Otherwise, you wouldn’t be able to understand a culture and you could even draw false conclusions about the culture, its’ beliefs and behaviors. Even though there are many definitions of culture, in this study we will focus on Hofstede’s definition of culture and his five cultural dimensions. Many would argue that this approach is not the best approach. It is of the authors knowledge that Hofstede’s research received a lot of criticism from studies such as Erez and Earley, (1993), Myers and Tan, (2002), Tayeb, (1994). However Hofstede’s influence on management research has been extensive (Sondergaard, 1994), and his cultural dimensions are the backbone of many of the existing cross-cultural management and information systems research (Ford, Connelly & Meister, 2003). Hofstede (1980) surveyed 116,000 employees at IBM. He analyzed these data and developed four cultural dimensions that created differences among employees of the different IBM offices. Later, Hofstede and Bond (1988) created a fifth dimension; the five dimensions are discussed below.. 18.

(26) Individualism/Collectivism: this dimension discusses how different societies handle their relationship between the individual and the collectivity. It defines the relationships and the importance placed on the individual versus the group. One way of looking at this dimension is looking at families. Some families live with their nuclear family (father, mother, and children), while others live closer to their extended families (grandparents, uncles, aunts, cousins); this shows the importance that is placed on the individual or the collectivity (Hofstede, 1980). Uncertainty Avoidance: this dimension discusses how different societies handle uncertainty about the future; it includes the discomfort with the unknown and the desire to reduce ambiguity. Hofstede claims that “ways of coping with uncertainty belong to the cultural heritages of societies, and they are transferred and reinforced through basic institutions such as family, schools and the state” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 146). Power Distance: this dimension discusses how different societies handle inequality; Hofstede claims that inequality can occur in areas such as prestige, wealth, and power. Even though all humans show a dominance behavior, it varies from one society to the other; some societies embrace inequality and some others try to diminish it. Overall, it is important to understand that the stratification systems are culturally dependent (Hofstede, 1980). Masculinity/Femininity: this dimension discusses how different societies are encouraged to be more goal-oriented or more socially oriented. It discusses both sides of the continuum where in some societies power, achievement and success are more important than caring, consensus and relationships. It doesn’t refer to the literal meaning of the words masculine and feminine but to the figurative meaning of them, and how societies place importance to either side of the continuum (Hofstede, 1980).. 19.

(27) Long-term/Short-term Orientation: this dimension is based on items of the Confucius teachings, it discusses how different societies value persistence, and thrift to personal stability and respect for tradition. Hofstede states "Long Term Orientation stands for the fostering of virtues oriented towards future rewards, in particular perseverance and thrift. It’s opposite pole, Short Term Orientation, stands for the fostering of virtues related to the past and present, in particular, respect for tradition, preservation of ‘face’ and fulfilling social obligations” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 359).. Technology Acceptance and Culture Globalization of businesses has increased the importance of the research on technology acceptance and culture; it has become clear to most of researchers that culture is a critical issue in the acceptance and usage of a new technology, especially because technology facilitates collaborative work across locations and cultures. Many of the existing research on Information Systems have turned their focus to issues of national, societal or ethnic culture (Gallivan & Srite, 2005). The interest of this research has been to increase their knowledge on the influence of national culture on IT adoption and use (Aladwani, 2003; Davison & Martinsons, 2003). According to Pliskin, Romm, Lee and Weber (1993), of the different types of technologies, the communication technologies are the ones instilled with a greater cultural content. This is why the recent studies on communication technologies have added the cultural aspect on them. They also claimed that the technologies used to support collaborative work have greater culture content. Different terms have been used to describe these technologies, Sproull and Faraj (1997) called them social technologies. Becoming culturally aware is critical to the adoption and use of technology, especially to the designers of the newer technologies. The greater their level of cultural 20.

(28) awareness, the better their products and technologies will be accepted and the wider the diffusion and use of this technology. “The consensus of scholars who study cross-cultural factors in IT use is that understanding National Culture is critical, because many technologies are created and marketed by “Western” designers for Western audiences, and that these technologies often embody implicit assumptions about Western culture” (Gallivan & Srite, 2005, p. 296). Various studies have been conducted analyzing the cultural factor on the technology acceptance. Hasan and Ditsa (1994) researched the adoption of IT using Hofstede’s dimensions in West Africa and Middle Eastern countries. Rose and Straub (1998) conducted a research on IT use in the Arab world. Straub, et al. (1997) also tested the TAM across three different cultures. All these studies allow us to further understand the connection between technology and culture and to emphasize on the importance of further research.. Development of Hypotheses TAM and the Online Social Networks Even though the relationships between perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and the behavioral intention to use have been tested before, the PU and PEOU of the online social networks in the industrial context hasn’t been tested. As the HR professionals perceive the system to be more useful, their behavioral intention to use social networks for staffing activities of the organization will increase this because the system will generate a greater value to the HR practitioner. Thus,. 21.

(29) Hypothesis 1: Perceived usefulness of online social networks for staffing activities will have a significant influence on behavioral intention to use them. As the HR professionals perceive social networks easy to use for staffing activities, their behavioral intention to use the social networks will increase. Thus, Hypothesis 2: Perceived ease of use of online social networks for staffing activities will have a significant influence on behavioral intention to use them. As the HR professionals perceive that the people in the organization and other HR professionals see the use of social networks for the staffing activities of the organization as important, their behavioral intention to use social networks will increase. Thus, Hypothesis 3: Subjective norms will have a significant influence on behavioral intention to use online social networks for staffing activities in the organization.. The Moderating Effect of Individualism/Collectivism In individualistic societies the ties between individuals are loose. People are encouraged to achieve success without placing a great importance on others’ thoughts or others’ success; thus, everyone is expected to take care of themselves and those very close to them only. In collectivistic societies however, people is to achieve success only by helping others with the help of others, and people are also expected to take care of those around them and be integrated to the group.. 22.

(30) Furthermore, in individualistic cultures people’s behavior is guided by personal goals, while in collectivistic cultures the opposite is true. The goals of the group come above those of the individual (Triandis, 1989). The relationship between subjective norm and the individualism/collectivism dimension is very clear. As a culture shows higher collectivism the importance placed on others’ opinions is greater. In those cultures with higher individualistic trends, independence and individual behavior is encouraged. Thus, Hypothesis 4: The relationship between subjective norms and behavioral intention to use is moderated by the espoused national cultural value of individualism/collectivism, so that the relationship is stronger for individuals with higher collectivist values. No relationship has been found between Perceived Usefulness and Perceived Ease of Use, and the Individualism/Collectivism dimension, thus no hypothesis is created. Srite and Karahanna (2006) did not hypothesize this relationship, the researcher followed their study on this dimension.. The Moderating Effect of Uncertainty Avoidance Cultures also differ in their levels of acceptance of uncertainty. In high uncertainty avoidance cultures, the new, unknown, unstructured and surprising situations make people feel uncomfortable. On the other hand there are those cultures that are more open to new experiences and things, and the culture encourages them to embrace the novel and the unknown. Uncertainty avoidance cultures find ways of minimizing uncertainty by creating rules and laws that will lead to order and reduce the possibility of uncertainty; people in. 23.

(31) these cultures are more emotional and are motivated by inner nervous energy. Uncertainty-accepting cultures on the other hand, accept others’ behavior and opinions even if they differ from their own; people in these cultures are less emotional, more indifferent and they are not expected to express their emotions (Hofstede & Bond, 1988). In high uncertainty avoidance cultures the new and the unknown is avoided, however, in low uncertainty avoidance cultures, the new and the unknown is embraced. A relationship between perceived usefulness and uncertainty avoidance can be found. If people in a low uncertainty avoidance cultures perceive a system to be useful then it will cause an effect in their willingness to use the system. Thus, Hypothesis 5a: The relationship between perceived usefulness of the social networks for staffing activities and behavioral intention to use is moderated by the espoused cultural value of uncertainty avoidance, such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with a lower espoused uncertainty avoidance. In high uncertainty avoidance cultures the ease of use of the system will have an effect on their willingness to use the system. If the system is easy to use then the uncertainty is reduced. Thus, Hypothesis 5b: The relationship between perceived ease of use of the social networks for staffing activities and behavioral intention to use is moderated by the espoused cultural value of uncertainty avoidance, such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with higher espoused uncertainty avoidance cultural value.. 24.

(32) As stated above, high uncertainty avoidance cultures seek to reduce uncertainty by creating rules and laws; however, another way that uncertainty can reduced is by receiving others’ influences. For example, knowing that others are using a system or receiving reinforcement from others to use the system (Evaristo and Karahanna, 1998). So a relationship between subjective norms and intention to use can be found. Thus, Hypothesis 5c: The relationship between subjective norms and behavioral intention to use is moderated by the espoused national cultural value of uncertainty avoidance such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with higher espoused uncertainty avoidance cultural values.. The Moderating Effect of Power Distance Power distance refers to how different cultures handle inequality; this also refers to the importance that is placed on the people above us. We believe that power distance will have an influence on the relationship between subjective norms and intention to use a system. It is because a culture with high espoused power distance will value authority and will comply with the decisions of their superiors while yielding a higher intention to use a system their superiors value (Srite and Karahanna, 2006). Thus, Hypothesis 6: The relationship between subjective norms and behavioral intention to use is moderated by the espoused national cultural value of power distance such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with higher espoused power distance cultural values.. The Moderating Effect of Masculinity/Femininity Masculine values reflect emphasis on work goals, assertiveness, and material success as opposed to feminine values which focus on quality of life goals, nurturing, and modesty (Hofstede, 2001). Perceived usefulness is related to the achieved goals, 25.

(33) advancement and success; these are all the characteristics that a masculine culture will reflect. Thus, Hypothesis 7a: The relationship between perceived usefulness of the social networks for staffing activities and behavioral intention to use is moderated by the espoused national cultural value of masculinity/femininity such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with higher masculine cultural values. In the case of perceived ease of use, feminine cultures are the ones that value pleasant and less frustrating work environment; they want systems that are free of hassle and effort and if they can find such a system their willingness to use it is increased. They also value relationships and place importance on others, they are more concerned about the relationships they maintain and are easier to be influenced by others. Thus, Hypothesis 7b: The relationship between perceived ease of use of the social networks for staffing activities and behavioral intention is moderated by the espoused national cultural value of masculinity/femininity, so that the relationship is stronger for individuals with higher feminine cultural values. Hypothesis 7c: The relationship between subjective norm and behavioral intention is moderated by the espoused national cultural value of masculinity/femininity, so that the relationship is stronger for individuals with higher feminine cultural values.. 26.

(34) The Moderating Effect of Long-Term/Short-Term Orientation According to Hostede and Bond (1988) those countries with espoused long-term orientation place importance on persistence, ordering relationships by status and observing this order, thrift and having a sense of shame; on the other hand, those cultures with espoused short-term orientation place importance personal steadiness and stability, protecting your face, respect for tradition and reciprocation of favors. Those cultures with espoused long-term orientation will be more willing to learn a system they perceived useful, this because they are perseverant towards results, so they will see for the advantages that the system will provide them and they will be more willing to use it. Thus, Hypothesis 8a: The relationship between perceived usefulness of social networks for staffing activities and behavioral intention to use is moderated by the espoused national cultural value of long-term/short-term orientation, such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with espoused longterm orientation cultural values. Those cultures with espoused long-term orientation value ordering relationships by status, which will help them maintain order. We then can assume that they place importance in others, especially on those with a higher status. Therefore we posit that the relationship between subjective norm and intention to use will be influenced by long/short-term orientation. Thus, Hypothesis 8b: The relationship between subjective norm and behavioral intention to use is moderated by the espoused national cultural value of long-term/short-term orientation, such that the relationship is stronger for those individuals with espoused long-term orientation cultural values. 27.

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(36) CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY This chapter provides the reader with information on how the study was conducted; it will touch upon issues such as the research framework, the hypotheses tested and the procedure in which these hypotheses were researched. It will also provide the reader with the questionnaires used to develop the research, the information about the sample, the data collection methods and the process in which the data was validated and analyzed.. Research Framework The following figure illustrates the relationships that will be analyzed throughout the study. The five dimensions of Hofstede play the role of moderators in the relationships between PU, PEOU and SN and behavioral intention to use a system. Long Term/ Short Term Orientation Perceived. Power Distance. Usefulness. Uncertainty Avoidance. Behavioral. Perceived. Intention. Ease of Use. Femininity/ Masculinity. Subjective Norms. Collectivism/ Individualism. Figure 3.1. Research framework. 29.

(37) This research aims to first investigate the national culture characteristics of the different countries in our sample and then analyze what kind of moderating role they play in the relationship between the TAM.. Hypotheses Hypothesis 1:. Perceived usefulness of social networks for staffing activities will have a significant influence on behavioral intention to use this system.. Hypothesis 2:. Perceived ease of use of social networks for staffing activities will have a significant influence on behavioral intention to use this system.. Hypothesis 3:. Subjective norms will have a significant influence on behavioral intention to use social networks for staffing activities in the organization.. Hypothesis 4:. The relationship between subjective norms and behavioral intention to use is moderated by the espoused national cultural value of individualism/collectivism, so that the relationship is stronger for individuals with higher collectivist values.. Hypothesis 5a:. The relationship between perceived usefulness of the social networks for staffing activities and behavioral intention to use is moderated by the espoused cultural value of uncertainty avoidance, such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with a lower espoused uncertainty avoidance.. Hypothesis 5b:. The relationship between perceived ease of use of the social networks for staffing activities and behavioral intention to use is. 30.

(38) moderated by the espoused cultural value of uncertainty avoidance, such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with higher espoused uncertainty avoidance cultural value. Hypothesis 5c:. The relationship between subjective norms and behavioral intention to use is moderated by the espoused national cultural value of uncertainty avoidance such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with higher espoused uncertainty avoidance cultural values.. Hypothesis 6:. The relationship between subjective norms and behavioral intention to use is moderated by the espoused national cultural value of power distance such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with higher espoused power distance cultural values.. Hypothesis 7a:. The relationship between perceived usefulness of the social networks for staffing activities and behavioral intention to use is moderated. by. the. espoused. national. cultural. value. of. masculinity/femininity such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with higher masculine cultural values. Hypothesis 7b:. The relationship between perceived ease of use of the social networks for staffing activities and behavioral intention is moderated by the espoused national cultural value of masculinity/femininity, so that the relationship is stronger for individuals with higher feminine cultural values.. Hypothesis 7c:. The relationship between subjective norm and behavioral intention is moderated. by. the. espoused. national. cultural. value. of. masculinity/femininity, so that the relationship is stronger for. 31.

(39) individuals with higher feminine cultural values. Hypothesis 8a:. The relationship between perceived usefulness of social networks for staffing activities and behavioral intention to use is moderated by the espoused national cultural value of long-term/short-term orientation, such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with espoused long-term orientation cultural values.. Hypothesis 8b:. The relationship between subjective norm and behavioral intention to use is moderated by the espoused national cultural value of longterm/short-term orientation, such that the relationship is stronger for those individuals with espoused long-term orientation cultural values.. Research Procedure Figure 3.2 presents the research procedure that will be followed during the development of this research. The literature review is one of the most important processes because this way the author was able to establish groundwork for the study. After establishing the groundwork the decisions about the sample and the sampling procedure were made. HR practitioners are the target of this study because they have never been researched on the acceptance of a new technology. After making the basic decisions about the study further investigation on the instrument to be used was made. Since this is a cross-cultural study the instrument was translated to other two languages. Expert review was requested, to make sure that the original meaning of the English version was kept in both the Spanish and Chinese version.. 32.

(40) Afterward, the instrument was tested, we proceeded to the collection of the data; data analysis was conducted after, and the findings of the study presented. The author also provides recommendations and suggestions for future research.. Review Literature Establish groundwork for the study Make decisions about the sample and the sampling procedure Find and adapt the instrument to the study Translate the Instrument to the different languages to be used Expert review and pilot test the instrument, modify when necessary Data collection Data analysys Present findings, conclusions and recommendations for future research Figure 3.2 Research procedure. Research Design This is an empirical study on Davis’ TAM; the original relationships presented in the TAM were tested, i.e. PU, PEOU, SN, and their relationships with behavioral intention to use the system. Besides, the moderating effect of culture using Hofstede’s cultural dimensions was tested in the relationship of PU, PEOU, SN and behavioral intention to use. Human Resource practitioners were asked to complete a questionnaire in which both the technology and cultural constructs were included and tested. Quantitative statistical analysis was applied to test hypotheses.. 33.

(41) Sample Setting The population researched in this study is HR practitioners of four different countries; these countries were chosen because of their different scores in Hofstede’s five dimensions of culture. Even though espoused culture will still be measured, it is important to show that there is already a precedent that has been seen on the differences of these countries. Table 3.1 presents Hofstede’s original scores for these four countries. Four countries were chosen to ensure sufficient variance in their national cultural values. The intention of this research was not a country to country comparison, but just to examine the effect of culture in the acceptance of a technology. Table 3.1. Hofstede’s five dimensions of culture and its given scores. Country Guatemala Spain Taiwan India. Power Distance (PDI). Collectivism (IDV). Masculinity (MAS). 95 57 58 77. 6 51 17 48. 37 42 45 56. Uncertainty Long-Term Avoidance Orientation (UAI) (LTO) 101 86 69 40. NA 19 87 61. Measurement The questionnaire used in this research was constructed with validated scales to measure the constructs of the study. This helps the study to ensure higher reliability and validity.. TAM Please refer to Table 3.2 to see the items used in the measurement of the TAM. Perceived usefulness is defined as “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her job performance” p. 26; it is measured using 6 items developed by Davis (1989). 34.

(42) Perceived ease of use is defined as “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free of effort” p.26; it is measured using 6 items developed by Davis (1989). Behavioral intention based on the Theory or Reasoned Behavior which states that intentions lead to action (Fishbein & Ajzen, (1975); measured using 2 items adapted from Srite and Karahanna (2006), BI1 and BI2. Subjective Norm is defined as “a person’s perception that most people who are important to him think he should or should not perform the behavior in question” (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975, p. 302); it is measured using 3 items adapted from Srite and Karahanna (2006). Table 3.2. TAM Questionnaire Scales Perceived Usefulness 1. Using social networks in my job would enable me to accomplish staffing activities more quickly. 2. Using social networks would improve my performance in staffing the organization. 3. Using social networks in my job would increase my productivity for staffing the organization. 4. Using social networks would enhance my effectiveness on the job when staffing the organization. 5. Using social networks would make the staffing activities easier. 6. I would find social networks useful in my job. Perceived Ease of Use 1. Learning to operate social networks for staffing purposes would be easy for me. 2. I would find it easy to get the social networks to do what I want them to do. 3. My interaction with social networks would be clear and understandable. 4. I would find social networks to be flexible to interact with. 5. It would be easy for me to become skillful at using social networks for staffing the organization. 6. I would find social networks easy to use. Behavioral Intention 1. I intend to use social networks for staffing purposes. 2. I intend to use social networks frequently for staffing purposes. (continued) 35.

(43) Table 3.2. (continued) Subjective Norms 1. My coworkers think I should use social networks for staffing purposes. 2. Other HR practitioners think I should use social networks for staffing purposes. 3. My supervisor thinks I should use social networks for staffing purposes.. Culture The. cultural. construct. individualism/collectivism,. is. based. uncertainty. on. Hofstede’s. avoidance,. 5. power. dimensions: distance,. masculinity/femininity and long/short-term orientation. However, since the instrument used by Hofstede in his study was not directly created for the cultural analysis but to analyze job satisfaction in the IBM offices around the world, the new instruments developed later by Dorfman and Howell (1988), and adapted by Wu (2006) and Srite and Karahanna (2006) were used. All these three instruments were compared, then identical items were kept only once and those unique from each instrument were included. Expert review on the content validity showed that the items used in the Masculinity/Femininity dimension were not appropriate to measure the espoused masculinity femininity dimension, because the items in these questionnaires referred to the genetic sense of masculine and feminine and not to the psychological sense of the words. These items included words as man and woman, misleading the respondents to a gender orientation instead of cultural values. Thus, the items were modified and additional items were created based on literature. The dimension of power distance is measured using 10 items; the individualism/ collectivism dimension is measured using 7 items; the uncertainty avoidance dimension is measured using 6 items; the masculinity/femininity dimension is measured using 7 items and the long-orientation/short-orientation dimension is measured using 4 items.. 36.

(44) Items have been taken from three different authors, so refer to table 3.4 for detailed information. Agreement with the items of Individualism/Collectivism means high collectivism, since all the items are written to show the collectivism side of this dimension. Agreement on the Uncertainty Avoidance items means high levels of uncertainty avoidance. On the Masculinity/Femininity dimension agreement with the items means higher masculinity levels. On the power distance dimension, agreement means high power distance levels. Refer to Table 3.3 to see the items in this dimension. Table 3.3. Culture Questionnaire Scales Power Distance 1. Managers should make most decisions without consulting subordinates. 2. It is frequently necessary for a manager to use authority and power when dealing with subordinates. 3. Managers should seldom ask for the opinions of employees. 4. Employees should not disagree with management decisions. 5. Managers should not delegate important tasks to employees. 6. Managers should not ask subordinates for advice, because they might appear less powerful. 7. Decision making power should stay with top management in the organization and not be delegated to lower level employees. 8. Managers should avoid off-the-job social contacts with employees. 9. Higher level managers should receive more benefits and privileges than lower level managers and professional staff. 10. A manager should perform work which is difficult and important and delegate tasks which are repetitive and mundane to subordinates. Individualism/Collectivism 1. Group welfare is more important than individual rewards. 2. Group success is more important than individual success.. Author (Dorfman & Howell, 1988) (Dorfman & Howell, 1988) (Dorfman & Howell, 1988) (Dorfman & Howell, 1988) (Wu, 2006) (Srite & Karahanna, 2006) (Srite & Karahanna, 2006). (Dorfman & Howell, 1988) (Srite & Karahanna, 2006) (Srite & Karahanna, 2006). Author (Dorfman & Howell, 1988) (Dorfman & Howell, 1988) (continued). 37.