英文單字知識對台灣高中生翻譯能力之影響

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(1)國立臺灣師範大學英語學系碩士論文 Master’s Thesis Graduate Institute of English National Taiwan Normal University. 英文單字知識對台灣高中生翻譯能力之影響. The Effects of Vocabulary Knowledge on Translation Competence of Taiwanese EFL High School Students. 指導教授：劉宇挺博士 Advisor: Dr. Yeu-Ting Liu 研究生：張筠崴 Yun-Wei Chang 中華民國一百零八年八月 August 2019.

(2) 摘要翻譯在台灣是主要的教學目標也是大學入學考試測驗題型的一種，一般而言，單字知識能力被認為是整體語言表現的核心，本研究旨在探討不同單字面向與翻譯能力之間的關係，以及單字知識對於台灣高中生的翻譯能力影響為何。研究結果發現，單字廣度與單字深度知識以及翻譯測驗之間具有高度的相互關係，而其中單字量與翻譯能力呈現最高相關。此外，在單字量知識對翻譯能力的貢獻之外，三種單字深度測驗(拼字，字詞搭配，多義字)都對翻譯能力有額外的獨特貢獻。當四種單字測驗組合起來, 解釋力達到了百分之六十二之高,意味著在單字量的基礎之上，單字深度對於翻譯能力能提供更完整的解釋力。最後，在四個單字測驗中，字詞搭配的標準化迴歸係數最高，表示字詞搭配對翻譯能力的預測力最高。總結來說，單字深度與單字量在預測翻譯能力上同樣地重要。希望在未來教師教學時，能將增加單字量以及尤豐富單字深度的目標納入到語言學習的課程裡，以確保翻譯表現的成效。. 關鍵字: 單字知識，單字量，單字深度，翻譯能力. i.

(3) ABSTRACT In Taiwan, translation is an aim and also a way of testing in college entrance exams. Vocabulary knowledge is generally believed to be the core of overall language performance. This research aims to investigate how the dimensions of vocabulary knowledge interrelate with translation performance and the effect of vocabulary knowledge on translation competence among senior high students in Taiwan. The findings from this current study affirmed that scores on vocabulary size, depth and translation competence were highly correlated with each other and vocabulary size had the strongest relationship with translation competence. Furthermore, each of three measures of vocabulary depth (spelling, collocation, polysemy) was capable of making a unique contribution to predicting translation competence, adding an additional variance over and above vocabulary size. In other words, the predictive power was increased when vocabulary breadth knowledge was combined with vocabulary depth knowledge. When four measures were combined together, the predictive power accounted for as many as 62 percent of translation competence, indicating that under the premise of vocabulary breath, vocabulary depth could provide a fuller explanatory power in translation. Last, collocation had the highest B weight, suggesting that collocation is the greatest predictor of translation competence among the four. ii.

(4) measures. In conclusion, the study confirms the importance of vocabulary depth as well as vocabulary size knowledge in translation competence. It is hoped that in pedagogical practices, vocabulary size expansion and vocabulary depth enrichment in particular should be encompassed and integrated into the language learning curriculum to ensure a successful translation performance.. Keywords: vocabulary knowledge, vocabulary size, vocabulary depth, translation competence. iii.

(5) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. This thesis would not have been completed without the encouragement and support of my beloved teachers, colleagues and family. Writing up a thesis is like embarking on a long and arduous academic journey, but in the end I find it one of the most enlightening and fulfilling experiences in my life. First and foremost, my sincere gratitude goes to my advisor, Dr. Yeu-Ting Liu, who lent me a helping hand when I was in desperate need and offered me insightful advice and continual support. I feel fortunate and privileged to have him as my advisor. I would also like to express my heartfelt appreciation to Dr. Wenta Tseng, whose immense expertise, infinite patience and unconditional support guided me through the countless dark moments of doubts and confusion and motivated me to persevere with my research. I benefited tremendously from the lively discussion meetings and instruction on statistics analyses. I couldn’t have completed this thesis without his support and encouragement. I would also like to acknowledge my committee member, Dr. Wen-chi Huang, for his constructive suggestions and valuable comments and time for my thesis. My special thanks also goes to my colleague, Linus, who helped me with the data collection. Most importantly, I owe many thanks to my beloved family for their support and love. My parents took care of my children the household chores when I was unavailable. My husband lifted my spirits when I was frustrated and helped me ride out every difficulty. My children knew when not to bother mommy understandingly. I hope my two cute children will be inspired by their mommy’s academic endeavor and pursuit. So many wonderful people contributed to the completion of my thesis. I cannot express enough thanks to them for all the support.. iv.

(6) TABLE OF CONTENTS CHINESE ABSTRACT .................................................................................................... i ABSTRACT .....................................................................................................................ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................ iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................. v LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................viii LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................viii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... 1 Background of the Study ....................................................................................... 1 Research Questions ................................................................................................ 4 Significance of the Study ....................................................................................... 5 Organization of the Thesis ..................................................................................... 5 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................... 7 Translation ............................................................................................................. 7 From Recognition Assessment to Performance Assessment ......................... 8 The Dismissal of Translation ......................................................................... 8 The Revival of Translation .......................................................................... 10 Analysis of Translation Errors ..................................................................... 11 Translation as an Assessment and Pedagogy ............................................... 13 Vocabulary Knowledge ....................................................................................... 15 What Is Counted as a Word? ....................................................................... 16 What Is Involved in a Word? ....................................................................... 18. v.

(7) Vocabulary Breadth ..................................................................................... 20 Text Coverage .............................................................................................. 21 Vocabulary Depth ........................................................................................ 23 Productive/Active Vocabulary vs. Receptive/Passive Vocabulary ............. 25 Measure Receptive and Productive Vocabulary Knowledge ....................... 26 Significance of Vocabulary Learning .................................................................. 28 The Contribution of Vocabulary Knowledge to Reading Performance ....... 28 The Contribution of Vocabulary Knowledge to Listening and Speaking.... 30 The Contribution of Vocabulary Knowledge to Writing ............................. 31 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................... 34 Participants and Test Administration ................................................................... 34 Instruments ........................................................................................................... 36 Data Collection and Analysis............................................................................... 47 CHAPTER FOUR. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .............................................. 49. Correlation Analysis ............................................................................................ 49 Hierarchical Multiple Regressions ....................................................................... 51 Discussion ............................................................................................................ 55 CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION .............................................................................. 59 Major Findings and Conclusion ........................................................................... 59 Pedagogical Implications ..................................................................................... 62 Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research ............................................... 65 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 67. vi.

(8) Appendix 1:Translation Items.............................................................................. 78 Appendix 2:The Vocabulary Test (Form B) ........................................................ 79 Appendix 3:The collocation test .......................................................................... 84 Appendix 4:The polysemy test ............................................................................ 86 Appendix 5:Prompted Productive Written Form Test ......................................... 88. vii.

(9) LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Description of “What is involved in Knowing a word?” .................. 18 Table 2 The Format of Receptive Vocabulary Size Test .................................. 38 Table 3 Collocation Test classified into frequency levels and word classes. ... 40 Table 4 The format of test questions in the collocation test............................. 46 Table 5 The format of test questions in the polysemy test ............................... 47 Table 6 The format of test questions in the productive vocabulary test .......... 47 Table 7 Correlations Matrix among the Independent Variables and the Correlation Coefficients of Subscales with the Dependent Variable ....... 50 Table 8 Correlations Results from Hierarchical Multiple Regression: Predicting Translation from Size, Spelling, Collocation and Polysemy .. 52. LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 The lexical space: dimensions of word knowledge and ability ....... 24. viii.

(10) CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Background of the Study. Translation had been considered a vital and indispensable tool for teaching and assessing language competence across various educational contexts and for a long period of time (Tsagari & Floros, 2013). Nonetheless, ever since the emergence of the communicative approach, the role of translation has been gradually dismissed as nothing but grammar translation, which hinders students from communicating freely and communicatively. Grammar Translation has been harshly criticized for giving exclusive attention to grammar accuracy, adopting isolated and invented example sentences in teaching. The fallacious associations of the translation task with the common attempt to find structural and lexical equivalences among L1 and L2 (grammar-translation) has contributed to the decline in the importance of translation studies. Due to the close association with the grammar translation method, many English teachers reject or even exclude adopting translation into language classrooms. However, several researchers (Cook, 2010; Whyatt, 2009; Wedydt, 2009) have affirmed that arguments presented in favor of the resurgence of translation have been. 1.

(11) supported by numerous empirical research and that it is beneficial to implement translation tasks into classroom teaching and assessment. With a more thorough and fair exploration of the incorporation of translation in teaching and assessment, the declining role of translation seems to start being reversed recently. From Carrere’s survey conducted in 2006, she points out that translation is an integral part of the language curriculum and has the following three functions:(1) to facilitate students with the necessary reading skills to deal with texts in a foreign language (2) to help students notice questions of style in L1 and L2 (3) to reinforce language proficiency in L2. Cook (2010) posits that the essence of the real communication is the process of transferring two languages and that it is this dynamism that makes translation so stimulating and so captivating. Belpoliti F. and Amira Plascentcia-Vela (2013) also propose implementing translation techniques as part of the language pedagogy has a direct influence on enhancing lexical awareness and help learners explore language in a deeper way. In practice, in test-oriented Asian countries like Taiwan, Mainland China and Japan, not only is translation a learning strategy and skill but it is also a testing method in high stakes joint college entrance exams such as Advanced Subject Tests(AST) and General Scholastic Ability Tests(GSAT) to assess students’ productive. 2.

(12) competence (Sue, 2015). Translation is perceived as a well- acknowledged component and highly-trusted subtext in language assessment in EFL contexts such as Taiwan and Japan. As a result, translation in both English pedagogy and assessment deserves to be further investigated Translation is actually an integrative thinking process in which not only sentential but also lexical knowledge are required. Nonetheless, cohesion of the source language and target language at sentential or lexical level is difficult. As a matter of fact, there is hardly one-to-one alignment of the sentences in L1 and L2 texts. Owing to cultural and linguistic differences, a single source sentence in L1 can be translated into many versions of sentences in L2 and vice versa. Lexical alignment is even more difficult to achieve in that translating a lexicon is far more flexible than translating a sentence (Hu, 2015). Lexical knowledge is generally believed to be of vital importance to the development of overall language performance. According to the Minimalist Program (Chomsky, 1995), the distinctions between languages are majorly lexical in nature. Cook (1998) further suggests that Minimalist Program is lexically-driven. Acquiring a sufficient quantity of vocabulary items triggers the inception of universal grammatical parameters. This approach is in line with the Lexical Learning Hypothesis (Ellis, 1997) according to which vocabulary knowledge plays an indispensable part in the. 3.

(13) acquisition of grammar. It has been acknowledged that vocabulary knowledge serves as a good predictor of general language proficiency and there is ample literature in the professional translation field. However, studies on the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and translation competence remain scant. The nature of word knowledge is multi-faceted, which involves more than just recognizing the written and spoken form. The form-meaning aspect of word knowledge (receptive knowledge) is only the superficial understanding of lexical knowledge. Knowing how to use a word correctly in a written work or speech (productive knowledge) is more complex and difficult. The relationship between these multiple facets of lexical knowledge and their effects on translation competence is still unclear. As a result, this research aims to investigate how the dimensions of vocabulary knowledge interrelate with translation performance. My research questions are as follows:. Research Questions. 1. Whether there exist significant relationships among vocabulary size, vocabulary depth knowledge and translation ability? 2. To what extent can vocabulary size and depth knowledge predict translation ability? 4.

(14) Significance of the Study. Despite the fact that there is no consensus regarding the definition of receptive and productive knowledge, three conclusions have been reached. Firstly, receptive knowledge is generally believed to develop before productive knowledge. Second, it is observed that to acquire the productive knowledge crucial for any level of effective communication, a large number of receptive vocabulary, at least thousands of words, has to be in place. As a result, it appears that to learn a word productively, it is advisable for EFL teachers to teach it productively. Explicit vocabulary teaching from teachers and good course books which have an equal mixture of the most frequent and less frequent thematic materials does help learners build up and retain vocabulary and ultimately master the different dimensions of word knowledge (Milton, 2009). By the same token, by comparing and contrasting the lexical correspondences of L1 and L2 from explicit translation instructions and practices, learners may benefit from error analysis, getting better scores in translation assessment and eventually enhancing their overall language abilities.. Organization of the Thesis. The thesis consists of five chapters. Chapter one provides the introduction, general background and research questions of the study. Chapter two presents the overall 5.

(15) literature review of vocabulary knowledge and translation, from the shifting roles of translation in history to important concepts and previous studies on translation from the pedagogical, learning and assessment perspective. Multiple dimensions of vocabulary knowledge and its contribution to the four skills are introduced. Chapter three describes the method, participant background, instruments administered and data analysis procedures. Chapter four reports the results and findings by using the correlation and regression analysis. Chapter five discusses the major findings, implications, limitations, and suggestions for future research.. 6.

(16) CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter presents the important issues involved in measuring the contribution of vocabulary knowledge to translation competence. The first section reviews the history and significance of translation in language learning and teaching. The second section examines the many facets of vocabulary knowledge. In the final section, the contribution of vocabulary knowledge to proficiency in the four skills will be discussed.. Translation. The Definition of Translation The definition of translation is that speakers or readers turn the native language into the target language or vice versa (Oxford, 1990). By the same token, Chamot (1987, p.77) defined translation as “using the first language as a base for understanding and/or producing the second language.” These definitions of translation suggest that second language learners use their first language as a basis to facilitate and scaffold the target language learning from the word level to the discourse level, despite the fact that there might be similarities or differences between the two languages. Through translation, learners can activate and utilize 7.

(17) their prior knowledge, i.e. the first language, to interact with and covert the two languages.. From Recognition Assessment to Performance Assessment. Performance assessment, in contrast to recognition assessment, is a test measuring the test taker’s actual demonstration of real-world tasks and skills instead of selecting an answer from a standardized test. It is the actual performances of relevant tasks rather than more abstract demonstration of knowledge requiring the superficial recognition only. In the scenario of language testing, performance assessment allows to explore more comprehensive and deeper aspects of language learning. Some common methods to assess performance are open-ended essays, extended response exercises, oral presentations, interviews or portfolios. One of the widely-used variants of performance-based task is translation.. The Dismissal of Translation. Up to the end of the 19th century, translation, with its primary focus on grammar and vocabulary, was the most dominant method in second and foreign language learning. However, at the turn of the 20th century, translation had been outlawed by theorists and practitioners. The most prevailing reasons in the academic circles for outlawing translation were formulated by the “Reform Movement.” Drastic. 8.

(18) transformation in pedagogy was advocated by Reform Movement supporters, abandoning an exclusive stress on written language and the teaching of grammar rules set in non-real life situations and moving towards stress on real communication, on meaningful texts and on learning through the use of L2. The form-focused Direct Method, with the four pillars of assumptions about language use — monolingualism, native-speakerism, naturalism, and absolutism, boosted the prosperity of language schools. Grammar Translation, the once orthodoxy of their time, became the villain and easy target of the Reform movement and the Direct Method. Grammar Translation was harshly criticized for giving exclusive attention to grammar accuracy, adopting isolated and invented example sentences in teaching. Another movement called Communicative language teaching (CLT), which focuses primarily on meaningful input, i.e. exposing students to real life interactions, further outlawed Grammar Translation, which was judged in the words of Long and Robinson (1998) to be “associated with failure” and was conceived as the polar opposite of “real-world” language and activities. The following innovative approaches such as The Natural Approach and the Suggestopedia totally avoid explicit grammar instruction and the use of L1. The fallacious association between Translation in Language Teaching (TILT) and the notorious Grammar Translation Approach in language teaching has given rise. 9.

(19) to the stagnant progress in the adoption and development of TILT for the past century or so.. The Revival of Translation. In contrast to the monolingualism which dominated prominent theories of language teaching in the 20th century, an increased interest in students’ own languages is seen in the beginning of the 21st century. Factors such as the academic and political climate, globalization, code-switching and identity issues contributed to the advocacy of first-language use in the classroom and TILT. Lately, TILT has been gradually accepted and adopted in many areas globally (Cook, 2009; Klapper 2006; Lems, Miller and Soro, 2010). Developments within translation studies seem to become more promising and Language Teaching and Assessment appear to be rediscovering translation as a tool for its purposes (Tsagari &, 2013). For example, Stern (1983) proposes that translation can be used to raise the awareness of contrast between L1 and L2. Whyatt and Weydt (2009) have affirmed the promising results of applying translation tasks to improve L2 learner reading proficiency. It can also be utilized to examine comprehension of the source text (Vinay and Darbelnet 1995). In addition, translation has been recognized as a cognitive strategy in reading (O’Malley and Chamot, 1990). Lee (2013) further proved that using translation did help students in reading comprehension in a case 10.

(20) study. It urged students to read more thoroughly and to simultaneously apply their mother tongue. Translation can also help language instructors to check students’ reading comprehension by analyzing their translation accuracy and expression. Iranian researchers Tavakili & Ghadiri & Zabihi (2014) proposed that a positive influence can been seen on EFL learners’ writing, especially on fixed expressions, transitions and certain grammar rules. These students reflected that though they are required to do the writing task directly in English, they are inclined to translate mentally before writing. Translation practices are provided with a number of justifications by some scholars. To begin with, translation is a means of teaching instead of the teaching goal. Due to globalization, immigration, social-economical needs, translation is a constant medium in cross-cultural communication. From daily communication to practical needs, translation is a useful tool for survival and communication. In addition, translation helps contribute to peacemaking and mutual consensus among nations. Also, it helps preserve students’ their own language identity while building a new language identity. We can say that the role of translation deserves more attention in language acquisition.. Analysis of Translation Errors. Errors in the learning process deserve close study for “correct items yield little 11.

(21) information about the interlanguage of the learner” (Brown, 1987, p.169). The ultimate goal of error analysis is to offer an explanation for the occurrence of errors. The interference between L1 and L2 has been considered the most important factor in facilitating or prohibiting the learners to acquire a new language. There are two types of transfer, positive transfer and negative transfer. Cook (2010) points out that the process of transferring two languages is what makes translation so interesting and stimulating. The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis claims that similarities between languages make language acquisition easier (positive transfer), which serves as a schema to facilitate the development of second language. On the other hand, interlanguage errors are considered the negative transfer brought about by the divergent use of L1 from L2. According to a study carried out to analyze the translation errors (Chinese to English) made by 29 English majors in a Chinese university. Zheng (2015), divided the errors into five categories: tense, syntax, word class, collocation and others. Surprisingly, the list shows only two errors are related with syntax and a greater proportion of the errors are about tense and vocabulary, which are in line with Miminalist Program and Lexical Learning Hypothesis, implying that vocabulary knowledge is crucial to the development of overall language performance. Through error analysis, two types of transfers (interlingual and intralingual. 12.

(22) tranfer) were found to lead to word class errors and collocation errors. Interlingual transfer is errors made by the interference of learners’ L1 while intralingual transfer is caused by overgeneralization of L2 rules. These two transfer errors are assumed to occur at the beginning stage of second language learning because learners tend to translate word to word but in reality there is hardly one-to-one alignment in L1 and L2 texts. Owing to cultural and linguistic differences and constraints, a single source can be translated into many versions. In translation, cohesion of the source language and target language at sentential or lexical level is difficult. Nonetheless, lexical alignment is even more difficult to achieve in that translating a lexicon is far more flexible than translating a sentence (Hu, 2015). According to Milton (2013, p. 70), “vocabulary size, calculated appropriately, appears consistently to explain about 50% of variance in the scores awarded to learners for their performance in the sub-skills of language.” This study aims to further investigate and confirm the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and translation competence.. Translation as an Assessment and Pedagogy. When translation is properly implemented pedagogically, learners learn to make analyses of the languages and make use of their metacognition to control their own learning process, and thus being able to grain a deeper grasp of the nature of language 13.

(23) and language use (Cook, 2010). During the two language transfer process, rather than being passive receivers of input, learners become active converters of output. As a result, translation helps develop learners’ critical and independent thinking. Not merely is translation a learning strategy and a teaching method but it is also a mode of testing and assessment. Translation test items are a kind of controlled writing assessment, which can demonstrate learners’ writing performance and their actual productive knowledge of the target language. Sun and Cheng (2013) propose that the students’ scores on the Translation task of the College English Test (CET) in China significantly correlated with their scores on the Listening Comprehension, Reading Comprehension, Writing and Cloze. In the descriptive questionnaire concerning CET among all the knowledge skills required, lexical vocabulary knowledge was rated the highest by students while translation skills and strategies were rated the lowest. To sum up, translation practices should be included in the teaching in the formal school context as well as a way of testing. The issue of washback is important in criterion-referenced language tests.. Inclusion of translation items. raise learner’s awareness and sensitivity to two languages and in the long run improve the language proficiency.. 14.

(24) Vocabulary Knowledge. Over the last 60 years or so, vocabulary as a subject of learning had been dismissed and not considered to be the mainstream in language curriculum and pedagogy. Structural approach regarded the role of vocabulary knowledge as merely an unimportant component to illustrate the structure content. Later, with the emergence of communicative approach, vocabulary instruction was still disdained as an unsystematic method and incidental at best to language learning (Brumfit, 1984). This kind of neglecting attitude can be shown in Harris’s and Show’s remarks that “ few words are retained from those which are ‘learned’ or ‘taught’ by direct instruction ... [and learners] extend their vocabulary through sub-conscious acquisition” (Harris & Snow, 2004, pp. 55-61). Contrary to the structural approach, Minimalist Program (Chomsky, 1995) and Lexical Learning Hypothesis (Ellis, 1997) claim that properties of lexical knowledge are the core of language acquisition and lexical items determine the sentence rather than play the minor role of only being slotted into supporting sentence structures. If a sufficient number of vocabulary items are acquired, the universal grammar parameters would be sparked. With this reverse of attitude toward lexical knowledge, there has been an increasing academic interest in vocabulary learning recently and a large number of researches have been carried out to investigate and confirm the 15.

(25) significance of vocabulary knowledge in overall language learning.. What Is Counted as a Word?. As discussed in the previous section, vocabulary plays a pivotal role in language learning. A number of researchers proposed the significant role that vocabulary knowledge plays in language learning. For example, Laufer (1987) remarks that vocabulary plays a paramount role in language learning. However, consensus regarding “what counts as a word?” has not been reached yet. There are discrepancies in vocabulary size estimates due to the different ways of counting vocabulary words. What lexical items to be used in a vocabulary breadth test is the first question that test researchers must ask themselves when designing a test. As Schmitt (2010, p. 188) notes, “different ways of counting lexical items will lead to vastly different results, and a persistent problem in lexical studies is that size figures are reported, but without a clear indication of how they were derived”. The most frequently used lexical items are in breadth tests are tokens, types, lemmas and word families, which are proposed by Nation (2001). The definitions of the four ways to count words must be clarified first for further research. Firstly, running words (i.e., tokens) are the total number of words in a text. For example, the sentence He assumes that he. 16.

(26) might be sick is counted as having seven words. The number of types, on the other hand, refers to the number of different words occurring in a text. Therefore, the same sentence He assumes that he might be sick is only counted as six words because the same word won’t be counted again despite the number of occurrence in the text. Thirdly, to measure “productive vocabulary size”, lemma is employed. A headword (i.e. base word) and its grammatically inflected forms like third person sigular-s, -ed, -ing, plural forms –s, etc.) and reduced forms (n’t) together is counted a lemma (Nation, 2010). Jogging, jogged, jogs are all counted as one lemma because they all have the same base word. It is based on the psycholinguist findings that once the learners have stored the base form of the word and are familiar with the inflectional rules, learning the inflected parts of words takes little effort and thus the learning burden can become smaller. Nonetheless, two problems by using lemma to count words are that (1) Do irregular verb forms such as sought, spat and worst count as one lemma or different lemma? (2) Is the most frequent form or the base form the headword of a lemma? (Sinclair, 1991). By combining the inflectional forms as lemmas, the number of units in a corpus can reduce significantly. Last, to measure” receptive vocabulary size”, we adopt the measuring unit —word families. Different from lemmas, word family include both the head. 17.

(27) word, inflected forms as well as derived forms. For example, the base word extend contains extends, extending, extended, extensive and extension in its word family and one should be able to figure out these words by applying the suffixes knowledge and judging from the context (Read, 2000). Read points out that utilizing word families to count words can result in more conservative estimates of vocabulary size. In conclusion, the different approaches researchers adopt to count words will lead to different results of the vocabulary size estimates. Therefore, it is crucial for researchers to adopt suitable counting methods to serve their research purpose so that they can obtain reliable results.. What Is Involved in a Word?. As for what knowledge is involved in a word, there is still no definitive definition of it due to the complexity nature in a word. Nation (2001) offers an insightful list making an attempt to define what a word is as indicated in the following Table. Table 1 Description of “What is involved in Knowing a word?” from Nation (2001, p. 27). 18.

(28) As indicated in table 1, Nation ( 1990, 2001) proffers a model to define what knowledge is involved in truly knowing a word. The table consists of three macro dimensions: form, meaning and use, each of which is then divided into three sub-categories. The subdivisions of form are knowledge of written and sound forms and word parts. Knowledge of meaning includes not only the core meaning but the associations, concepts and referents. If a learner is to perform fluently, he or she may have to grasp the shades and nuances of meanings a word involves. Knowledge of use includes its grammatical properties, collocational knowledge regarding how words go together and constrains on where , when and how to use a word appropriately. What is more important is that each dimension of knowledge is further sub-divided into two categories of receptive and productive knowledge, depending on the skills required by the given tasks. Abilities to only recognize words in listening and reading tasks are receptive skills, also known as passive skill, 19.

(29) while tasks such as speaking and writing require productive knowledge. From the above list, it is evident that a single vocabulary test is unable to capture the actual vocabulary knowledge a learner has. To test and understand the diversity of word knowledge, it must be better defined and different measures of vocabulary test must be designed.. Vocabulary Breadth. A common distinction of vocabulary knowledge is proposed by Anderson and Freebody (1981) by dividing vocabulary knowledge into two categories. The first is “breath” of knowledge, also known as vocabulary size, referring to the number of words that a person knows. The second dimension is “depth” of knowledge, meaning the quality of words a person knows or how well one knows a word. Meara (1996) states that vocabulary breadth is a prerequisite and determinant factor for proficiency in language skills. It is reasonable that learners having big vocabularies are more likely to be successful in almost all aspects of L2 than those with smaller vocabularies. To have a basic idea of vocabulary size (i.e. breath), we can first understand what is the average amount of vocabulary that native speakers have. The results of research into the vocabulary size of native speakers are widely varying. For instance, for an educated native college graduate, the rough vocabulary size estimate is 20.

(30) 16,000 to 20,000 word families (Goulden et al., 1990). It is further indicated that word power of native speakers are expected to increase by about 1,000 word families per year (Nation and Waring , 1997). However, for EFL learners, the learning goal of 20,000 word families is quite daunting and challenging if they want to be native-like. As for the learning goal for senior high school students preparing for the college entrance exam in Taiwan, an estimate of 7,000 lemmas is expected based on the word list issued by CEEC.. Text Coverage. Regarding vocabulary size, another important question to ask is how many words a language learner needs to know? Since not all words are equally important and useful for a person to be competent in various forms of communication in English, it is not necessary for all L2 learners to possess native-like vocabulary breadth. (Nation 2001; Schmitt, 2010). Schmitt (2008) proposed that the percentage of lexis required for a person to comprehend the text should be determined before setting the vocabulary size needed for certain language tasks. Adolphs and Schmitt (2003) remark that 3,000 spoken word families are needed to accomplish 96% of coverage of running words in daily conversation. As for listening skill, at least 95% of the running words in the input should be understood to grasp a reasonable comprehension, suggests Nation (2001). To serve this purpose, it is found that a 21.

(31) vocabulary size of around 3000-5000 words is required. As for writing skill, Santos’ research (1988) reveals that when professors mark EFL students’ writing performance, lexical errors are regarded as the most serious error type. According to the research by Leki and Carson (1994), vocabulary is referred to as the most significant key factor for writing by EFL learners. While a vocabulary of around 2000- 3000 words can be sufficient to express a wide range of ideas, word choices are used very differently between language users. L2 learners tend to use basic and less sophisticated words whereas an educated native writer would use lower-frequency but more precise words (Schmitt, 2000). We can say vocabulary is considered a decisive factor in evaluating a learner’s writing. Schmitt points out specifically that to improve writing quality, learners’ receptive vocabulary must be increased and elevated to the extent that it becomes productive. In terms of reading, vocabulary size required to comprehend different types of discourse is investigated. It seems that a reader needs to know at least 95% of the words in the text to comprehend the text (Laufer, 1989). To guess an unknown word accurately from the context and to comprehend texts which are not simplified without assistance, knowing 98% of the words in a text is necessary (Hu and Nation, 2000). To arrive at the ideal text coverage of 98%, a vocabulary of approximately 8000-9000 word families is required for reading a wide range of authentic texts such. 22.

(32) as newspaper and classic novels for pleasure. Meara (1996) noted that learners with big vocabulary size are more proficient in a wide range of language skills. Knowing what one’s breadth of vocabulary is reflects the current proficiency level and the frequency band that s/he should work on. Nevertheless, Read (1998) argues that vocabulary size is not the sole factor of language learning and teaching and does not ensure proficiency in all aspects of language learning.. Vocabulary Depth. What is counted as a word? It is a too complex notion to answer easily. A prominent feature of vocabulary knowledge is that it is multi-faceted. Historically, a rich body of researches have been conducted to explore the complexity of word knowledge. Vocabulary depth knowledge, compared with vocabulary breadth knowledge, is much more complex considering all the knowledge involved in knowing a word. Many researchers have proposed a variety of methods to describe what comprises word knowledge. Richards (1976) proposes eight assumptions as to lexical competence, which Read (2000) considers offers a general framework of vocabulary knowledge. Qian (1988, 1999) proposes that the vocabulary depth knowledge consists of lots of components including pronunciation, meaning, spelling, frequency, register, and 23.

(33) also syntactic, morphological, sematic and collocational properties. Henriksen (1999) divides vocabulary knowledge in terms of movement along a continuum: from partial to precise knowledge, shallow to deep knowledge, and receptive to productive knowledge. But it is not without its criticism because it is difficult to find a concept that holds the variety of elements together. Later, a third component automaticity is added to breadth and depth by Meara (1996). Daller et al. (2007) call this fluency and propose a hypothetical, three-dimensional lexical space (Figure 1). Schmitt (2010) refers to fluency as the speed to retrieve or produce words in speaking or writing as well as the adequate speed to recognize or comprehend words in reading or listening.. Figure 1 The lexical space: dimensions of word knowledge and ability (Based on Daller et al., 2007, p. 8). This dimension model might be able to explain how learners can perform differently from each other in their foreign language. For example, with vocabulary breadth held constant, a learner performs differently from a learner with the same 24.

(34) vocabulary breadth but higher fluency and depth. In other words, learners with higher fluency and depth are expected to outperform in communicative situations. Milton (2013) proposes that depth of vocabulary knowledge is links and a network between words. These words associate and interact with one another. Vocabulary depth involves various word characteristics, inclusive of the shades of meaning a word may carry, its connotations and denotations, collocations, and word associations. Due to the multiple dimensions, vocabulary depth is an incremental process which requires multiple exposure to achieve mastery of word (Schmitt, 2010). Consequently, when designing a vocabulary test, it is paramount to specify the dimension the test in question intends to measure to prevent confusion or measurement error.. Productive/Active Vocabulary vs. Receptive/Passive Vocabulary. Words that we use actively when we speak or write are productive vocabulary and it is defined by Nation (2001, p. 25) as “wanting to express meaning through speaking or writing and retrieving and producing the appropriate spoken or written word form.” In contrast, receptive vocabulary is comprised of words that can be comprehended or recognized in a listening or reading text. Based on Nation’s definition, receptive vocabulary knowledge is “perceiving the form of a word while listening or reading and retrieving its meaning.” Naturally, a learner’s passive 25.

(35) vocabulary is assumed to be larger than its productive vocabulary since we don’t have to take efforts to retrieve and produce words like when we speak or write. An issue worth noting here is that “There is no consensus as to whether this distinction is dichotomous or whether is constitutes a continuum” (Laufer & Goldstein, 2004). From the developmental approach, receptive and productive vocabulary should be treated as a continuum instead of an arbitrary dichotomy. As the learner learns more about the lexical items, receptive knowledge gradually increases and moves towards productive mastery. They are interdependent but when the receptive knowledge becomes productive is still not clear. Webb (2008) also observed receptive vocabulary size correlates with productive vocabulary size. In other others, the greater a learner’s receptive vocabulary size is, the more likely a learner’s productive vocabulary size will be. On the other hand, Meara (1997) posits that the two types of vocabulary knowledge are two contrasting and separate poles in that they represent two different associational concepts and as a result cannot be considered a continuum.. Measure Receptive and Productive Vocabulary Knowledge. Word knowledge is multifaceted and it encompasses knowledge more than just the connection between meaning and form (Laufer et al. 2004). This multifaceted nature of vocabulary knowledge makes it so difficult to test all the facets of a word 26.

(36) at the same time. To date, no accepted tests could measure every aspect of vocabulary knowledge. Nevertheless, some well-established tests have been designed to investigate and provide data for vocabulary size knowledge, two of which, for instance, are Meara’s X-Lex and Nation’s VLT (Vocabulary Levels Tests) tests. Designing tests to validate the depth of vocabulary is a much more complicated task than measuring size (Pignot-Shahov, 2012). In terms of the developmental approach, “no current scale gives a full account of the incremental path of mastery of a lexical item, and perhaps acquisition is too complex to be so described” (Schmitt, 2010, p. 224). In terms of ’dimensions approach’, some vocabulary tests seek to catalogue and test word knowledge items such as spelling, register, collocation etc. Meara and Wolter (2004) propose that depth of knowledge could be measured by counting the number of links in a word’s network. However, Vermeer (2001) indicates that breadth and depth are actually the same thing, development of vocabulary depth is based on the development of vocabulary breath. There seems to be a contradiction between the two dimensions. Therefore, to find out the relationships with language skills, researchers need to measure different dimensions of vocabulary knowledge both separately and combined.. 27.

(37) Significance of Vocabulary Learning. An abundant amount of literature has been presented to prove the significance of vocabulary in second language acquisition. Wilkins (1972, pp. 111-112) proposes that “without grammar, very little can be conveyed. Without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed.” Krashen (1989) posits that vocabulary can serve as a proper indicator of language proficiency because language learners consult a dictionary more often than a grammar book. As explained above, the success of vocabulary knowledge determines whether learners can have commands over a foreign language. The next section will review the literature related to the contribution of vocabulary knowledge to language proficiency in the four skills.. The Contribution of Vocabulary Knowledge to Reading Performance. Numerous EFL studies have demonstrated the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading performance. In the context of TOEFL 2000 research, Qian (2002) validated the relationships between breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension in academic settings by implementing a test measuring three depth of vocabulary knowledge: synonymy, polysemy, and collocation. The study found that vocabulary depth and size knowledge are equally positive predictors of reading comprehension. In addition, Zhang (2008) used VLT. 28.

(38) to investigate the vocabulary knowledge of 37 Singapore secondary students. The results showed that 2000-word and 3000-word levels word knowledge correlated with the reading comprehension. In Laufer’s studies (1992), she examined the correlations between two kinds of vocabulary size tests (Vocabulary Levels Test and Eurocenters Vocabulary Test) and reading comprehension. 92 university freshmen whose native language was either Hebrew or Arabic participated in the research, with the result of correlations of 0.50 and 0.75 respectively with reading comprehension. Rashidi and Khosravi (2010) conducted a study to investigate the role of depth (using the Word Associates Test) and breadth of vocabulary knowledge (using Vocabulary Levels Test) in reading comprehension with 38 senior university students. The result findings suggest a strong relationship between depth and reading performance, having a high correlation of 0.75 between breadth and reading comprehension and 0.87 between depth and reading comprehension. Laufer (1992) suggested that having a minimum of the most frequent 3000 words families is necessary to understand an authentic text. In other words, it will be difficult for learners to comprehend the text because the required vocabulary size do not cross the threshold. To read for pleasure, a threshold of 5,000 word families is required. Owing to this strong relationship between vocabulary and reading, devotion should be given to explicit vocabulary teaching and to students’. 29.

(39) vocabulary growth.. The Contribution of Vocabulary Knowledge to Listening and Speaking. Zhang (2011) examined the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and listening comprehension using TEM4 (Test For English Majors) and observed that vocabulary breadth accounted for a greater proportion than depth, with 27% variance of listening comprehension, 24% variance of dictation, whereas the depth explained only 2% variance of listening comprehension and dictation. The research result is in line with Staehr’s research finding (2008), with vocabulary depth contributing much less to listening comprehension than vocabulary breadth. Vocabulary size could predict 39% of the variance in the listening scores and it was suggested that 6000-7000 word families are required for adequate listening. However, Wang’s (2015) research found a different result pattern. With more mature vocabulary testing instruments and quantile regression, the result showed that vocabulary breadth and depth both had a significant influence on listening scores and vocabulary depth contributed greater to listening scores than vocabulary breadth. As for the relationship with speaking, Zimmerman (2004) is perhaps the only researcher to investigate such relationship exists. Although vocabulary size seems to be able to predict oral skills similar to written skills, it is assumed that the 30.

(40) relationship might be less strong. The reason might be that lexicons for oral language, compared with written one, are less advanced and sophisticated. The other factor to be taken into consideration is the formats vocabulary knowledge is held. It seems that vocabulary size can predict oral skills comparably with written skills on condition that vocabulary size is measured in the aural format (Milton et al., 2010). Schoonen’s (2010) findings suggest that if successful communication is to occur, the most frequent 2000 words must be in place first; however, the role of vocabulary knowledge diminishes with increasing word level difficulty rather faster than it does with writing. The reason might be that in daily communications, you only need the most basic and less advanced knowledge.. The Contribution of Vocabulary Knowledge to Writing. Coxhead (2012) conducted a study to investigate the relationship between vocabulary and academic writing. The participants are 317 ELT university majors in New Zealand. The students were asked to carry out a combined task of reading and writing and followed by an interview to investigate their academic studies and language learning. Data analysis indicated that these students expressed a need for academic vocabulary. Interview results showed that the high awareness of the academic audience impacted their word choices in writing. In Karakoc’s research (2017), he attempted to investigate the correlation 31.

(41) between vocabulary development and writing performances. The participants were 175 Iranian EFL students in an intensive language program. In line with what Webb (2008) suggested, the results showed that the learners had larger receptive vocabulary knowledge than their productive vocabulary knowledge because to gain the comprehensive knowledge of each word learners need to master diverse dimensions and the productive aspects are more difficult for learners to acquire and use. In Zhou’s study in 2010, he examined the vocabulary knowledge of Chinese EFL learners, particularly their academic vocabulary knowledge. It was found that productive vocabulary correlated moderately with writing performance and that having larger productive vocabulary knowledge enables them to outperform in the given writing exam. However, one thing worth noting is that even if learners possess vocabulary size of only low frequency words, they could also write well-developed essays by using even the low frequency words (the most frequent 2000 words). The relationship between vocabulary knowledge and writing is reciprocal just as that between vocabulary knowledge and reading. Vocabulary knowledge enhances writing performance and so does writing to vocabulary knowledge. However, Laufer (1998) proffers that productive vocabulary knowledge does not grow just as receptive vocabulary knowledge in that it is considered as a more. 32.

(42) advanced level and the final phase of vocabulary learning. Other studies further state that writing can actually allow for greater and more experimental use of productive vocabulary for learners because writing tasks are usually allocated more time and resources. The above-mentioned discussions and research results demonstrate that measures of vocabulary knowledge are proved to be strong predictors of performance in the four skills: reading, listening, speaking and writing. In addition, this predictive power can be increased when measures of different dimensions of vocabulary knowledge are combined (Milton, 2013).. 33.

(43) CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This research aims to investigate how the dimensions of vocabulary knowledge interrelate with translation performance and to find out whether measures of vocabulary knowledge are good predictors of performance in translation. According to Milton’s research (2013), “it seems that the more sophisticated the measures of vocabulary knowledge are, the more likely they are to explain variance in performance in the four skills, up to the level of around 50%” (p. 73). To collect the required and comprehensive data for the present study, four measures of vocabulary knowledge were administered along with a translation test. The four measures of vocabulary knowledge are Vocabulary Size Test, Collocation Test, Polysemy Test, and Prompted Productive Written Form Test.. Participants and Test Administration. The tests were administered in an all-boys senior high school located in central Taipei City. The participants in this study were a total of 124 third graders who had just finished the second year, attending the summer intensive course in an effort to prepare for the joint university entrance exam in the next semester. Five kinds of tests were administered: translation items, spelling test, vocabulary. 34.

(44) size test, polysemy and collocation. To prevent students from fatigue, the five tests were administered separately once at a time in regular English classes within two weeks, with vocabulary size and translation tests lasting for 50 minutes and the other three (polysemy, collocation and spelling) lasting for 35 minutes. The test administrators were the English teachers of respective classes. At the beginning of each test, they spent some time instructing the test requirements and sample test items explicitly. Students were well informed of the purpose of the tests as a part of a research, but they were not aware of the source of these five tests. Students were encouraged to take the test seriously for they were about to take the forthcoming mock GSAT exam and these tests would benefit their preparation. To minimize the guessing effects in multiple-choice items, students were told that the results of the scores would be used only for the purpose of research and would not influence their term grades. In addition, they were told the test results would serve as a useful reference to help them realize where their vocabulary knowledge level was, where they could work on to improve, and their current translation performance. Pilot tests were administered in another class two weeks prior to the formal tests with the primary purpose to find out the appropriate time span needed for students to finish each of the test and to check if students have any doubts or confusions about the format of each test since all of these tests have already been well-validated on a sound. 35.

(45) basis. In the process of the administration, students were told the purpose of the tests and how these tests could benefit them as well.. It was observed that most students. showed high motivation toward these tests with only a few having low motivation in learning showing lukewarm attitude. After all, being in the third year of senior high, a time when they would soon face the high-stake college entrance exam, the students were eager to find out what levels their vocabulary knowledge and translation competence were at.. Instruments. Translation Test The translation test adopted in this study is a well-validated test designed by Sue (2015). The test consisted of 5 translation items, each item containing two sentences adapted from two entrance exams (GSAT and AST). Pilot test was conducted to find out the right format, time duration and appropriate items. To reduce practice and learning effect, item questions were rewritten. Different vocabulary words of the same frequency band were used to make items different from the original version, using the same sentence structure and words of the same topic. The results of the formal test showed great validity and reliability. The following are the sample translation items and the provided answer for analytic scoring of the current study. The final version of the test is in Appendix 1. 36.

(46) 1.. 日本的核電廠爆炸已經引起了全球對核子能源安全的疑慮。. Provided answer for analytic rating: 1. The explosion of /the Japanese nuclear power plant/ has caused global concerns/ over the safety/ of nuclear energy. (100 學測) Translation items were rated analytically based on the criteria of CEEC. There are four rating principles for raters according to the CEEC criteria. First, each item will be divided into five chunks, with each chunk taking up 1 point. So, the total score for each item will be 5 points. Second, for each error, it will be deducted 0.5 point and 1 point at most for two or more errors within one single chunk. Too many errors within one single chunk do not lead to deduction of points in other chunks. In other words, each chunk is scored separately, and the sum of the five chunks will be the total score of the item. Third, the same repeated spelling errors will only be counted once. Fourth, punctuation error will only deduct 0.5 point the most. Hence, correct answers would get five points for each item and they were coded 5 while incorrect items were coded from 0 to 4.5. Raw scores are assigned on a scale from one to five. Receptive Vocabulary Size Test The vocabulary size test adopted in this study is a newly constructed and validated test designed by Hisao (2018). The test includes 90 items with target words in six levels. The format of the test is four-choice multiple choice questions. The most frequent 6050 words were chosen from the new frequency list (NFL). Unlike 37.

(47) traditional vocabulary tests, this test only chose target words near each frequency band (the margin words) in order to explore the concept of passing a certain frequency level to explore learners’ vocabulary sizes. Four well-established English dictionaries, the Longman Dictionary, Oxford Dictionary, MacMillan Dictionary, and Cambridge Dictionary, were utilized as references to keep the stem concise and clear. To ensure that the difficulty levels of the three distractors were consistent, words were chosen within the same frequency band as the target word. To minimize the guessing effect, if the target word had an obvious suffix or prefix, which would reveal information about the target word, the distractors should also contain it. In addition, to prevent possible fatigue or boredom, the order of the target words did not follow the original order of the word frequency level from one to six. Rather, they were organized in the following order: Level One, Level Two, Level Five, Level Three, Level Four, and Level Six. For each level, there were fifteen target words. The sample questions are shown in Table 2. The correct answer is shown in bold font and the final version of the test is in Appendix 1 Table 2 The Format of Receptive Vocabulary Size Test Level 1 1. the reason why something happens (A)police (B)report (C)value (D)cause 2. the season after summer and before winter (A)fall (B)model (C)per 3. to make musical sounds with the voice. (D)center. (A)catch. (D)sing. (B)hit. (C)face 38.

(48) Three measures Productive Vocabulary Knowledge Test The three measures of productive vocabulary knowledge test administered in this study — the collocation test, the polysemy test and the prompted productive written form test, were developed by Tseng in 2006 and their validity and reliability have been well proved. The collocation and polysemy test were in the format of multiple-choice items whereas the prompted productive written form test was in the format of blank-fillings with supportive sentence contexts. Furthermore, it is noted that these three tests were respectively designed into three frequency levels, i.e., 2000, 3000, 5000 levels by adopting test items as appeared in Schmitt et al.’s Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT), which has sufficient items of different frequency bands and well-proportioned word classes as the ratio of word classes in language overall. Therefore, the difficulty level of words between the three measures can be maintained and cross-compared. Collocational knowledge is at the core of language knowledge; in other words, collocational knowledge is indispensable in appropriate language use (Nation, 2001). The purpose of the collocation test is to tap into learner’s capacity to recognize the syntagmatic co-occurrence of words (Tseng, 2006). The item design followed Nation’s set of scales of collocation test item writing and each target word is embedded in an appropriate and valid sentence context. The 30 items contained. 39.

(49) different frequency levels and were designed with different word classes. As shown in the below table, by referring to British National Corpus (BNC), the option with the highest frequency is the correct answer whereas the less frequent options serve as plausible distractors. Table 3 Collocation Test classified into frequency levels and word classes. 2000 LEVEL Nouns SCALE: We need to protect the village from ______-scale development.. large (582) huge (24) great (7) big (8). PROFIT: It was reported that the ______ profit for the last nine months was 8.5 %.. net (624) absolute (8) whole (1) complete (0). CHOICE: Going to Cambridge University is my ______choice.. first (340) primary (2) key (1) chief (0). ACCIDENT He had a ______ accident last year but he has fully recovered now.. serious (71) dangerous (2) cruel (2) miserable (0). VICTORY The ______ victory gives him four more years in government.. election (202) selection (0) voting (0) choosing (0). SECRET. keep (22). Are you sure you can ______ any secret and not tell anyone. hold (1) retain (0) preserve (0) TREASURE They should make the Olympic gold medal winner a _______ treasure. He is more precious to us than the crown 40. national (44) personal (2) private (1).

(50) jewels.. public (0). Verbs ADOPT After talking with the doctor, the couple decided to adopt a (n)_____.. child (20) kid (1) infant (0) juvenile (0). COMPLAIN The American couple complained _______the high cost of visiting Europe.. about (578) at (13) for (4) on (2). CONNECT. to (209). Buying a modem can enable you to connect ______ the Internet.. at (12) for (1) on (1). IMPROVE Some sportsmen use drugs to illegally improve ______.. performance (86) condition (2) situation (0) achievement (0). ARRANGE Your doctor and the hospital will arrange ______ you to make regular visits for medical care.. for (566) with (27) in (16) at (2). Adjectives INDEPENDENT Although defeated as an independent ______ in January, he achieved success two months later in another election.. candidate (84) applicant (0) competitor (0) contestant (0). ORIGINAL The original ______ for the building was dropped because it cost too much money.. plan (117) method (8) solution (7) answer (6). FIRM It is generally believed that the new president will show a firm ______to primary education in the country.. commitment (68) determination (7) resolution (6) mind (0). BITTER Do not burn the garlic because it will acquire a bitter. taste (69) flavor (5). 41.

(51) ______.. feeling (5) sense (2). 3000 LEVEL Nouns ATMOSPHERE An international university should provide a (n) ______ atmosphere on campus for students from different backgrounds.. friendly (84) sociable (5) sympathetic (1) amazing (0). STRUCTURE The ______ structure of the organization needed to be. internal (108) inner (9). totally changed.. interior (7) inside (0). PROSPECT. reasonable (33). I still have a ______ prospect of finding a new job within a couple of months.. practical (1) sensible (0) logical (0). DIGINIY The loser behaved with______ dignity and showed none of the resentment he may have felt.. great (37) huge (0) big (0) large (0). FACTOR Safety is a ______factor in a car design.. major (321) chief (13) initial (1) original (0). DRAFT Always use good quality paper, especially for the ______draft of a composition.. final (79) terminal (0) ultimate (0) closing (0). MERIT Its _____ merit is that it can be used by many people.. great (25) vast (0) big (0) huge (0). CHILL The possibility of redundancy sent a ______wind through the company.. Verbs 42. wind (28) air (1) gust (0) snow (0).

(52) ABANDON. reckless (18). They just walked, with _______ abandon, into the most dangerous part of the town.. careless (0) mindless (0) thoughtless (0). DWELL These analyses generally dwell ______ technical and economic aspects.. on (300) for (8) with (7) at (5). PLEAD The lawyer told the client not to plead ______ because he still had a good chance to win the case.. guilty (162) criminal (0) fault (0) wrong (0). BOTHER We can’t bother ____ him any more now. We’ve got to try to complete the task by ourselves.. with (323) at (7) for (5) on (5). ENCOUNTER When he encounters ______, he finds a way to solve them.. problems (20) questions (0) troubles (0) hardships (0). Adjectives ANNUAL The company hopes for 16 percent annual ______ over the next three years.. growth (176) development (2) extension (0) expansion (0). MAGNIFICENT On a clear day there are magnificent ______from the top of the building.. views (43) pictures (3) scenes (0) status (0). STABLE The girl remains in serious but stable ______ after the surgery.. condition (59) position (10) situation (7) limitation (0). DISTINCT War is a very distinct ______ between the two countries.. 43. possibility (70) probability (1) option (0) potentiality (0).

(53) 5000 LEVEL Nouns PHASE It will take many years to phase ______existing cars that run on low quality leaded petrol.. out (179) away (0) off (0) aside (0). LOOP When teachers tell students about their progress, this forms a ______ loop which can help student learning.. feedback (40) return (1) responding (0) come-back (0). SAMPLE. size (137). Having a large sample ______ is important to the success of any research project.. number (2) quantity (0) amount (0). REVENUE total (102) The new approach will maximize ______ revenue and result whole (1) in a profit of $1,000,000 US dollars. entire (1) full (1) CURB He introduced a new program to the company to curb _______.. inflation (22) increase (0) extension (0) escalation (0). WARD He is using a new drug to ward _____ the effects of aging.. off (274) away (3) out (2) aside (0). PULSE I checked out her pulse _____ with my right hand.. rate (86) level (0) tempo (0) speed (0). MORTGAGE There are fears that the mortgage _____ will increase next. rate (82) fee (0). year.. price (0) fare (0). STREAK To be honest, during our _____ streak, I cheated a little bit to change our luck.. losing (114) defeating (0) failing (0) dropping (0). 44.

(54) Verbs CONTEMPLATE Because the employers are not willing to pay higher salaries, the employees will have to contemplate ______a strike.. the possibility of (8) the probability of (0) the likelihood of (0) the odds of (0). ABOLISH The government’s response was to abolish the ______ that protected wildlife.. law (11) command (0) code (0) order (0). PENETRATE The degree to which the AIDS virus will penetrate ______. into (21) on (3). these two populations is still not yet clear.. in (1) inward (0). OBSCURE Details of this period of Einstein’s life______ obscure.. remain (38) maintain (0) keep (0) retain (0). EXTRACT His fear is that he will be tortured to extract _______ about his brother.. information (36) knowledge (1) news (0) messages (0). LURK You should be careful to avoid strangers lurking _______trees.. behind (9) after (0) at the back of (0) at the rear of (0). Adjectives WHOLESOME Sport, with its wholesome ______, is a perfect way to sell products.. image (17) picture (0) representation (0) portrait (0). GLOOMY. picture (20). The Economic report painted a gloomy ______ for the Southern African Region.. image (0) illustration (0) description (0). PROFOUND The conclusion of this report has profound ______ for future research.. implications (57) suggestions (0) indications (0). 45.

(55) inferences (0) INFINITE The legislators, in their infinite ______, passed a law that protects the minority of country.. wisdom (20) knowledge (0) insight (0) cleverness (0). The sample test questions and format are as follows and the final version of collocation test is shown in Appendix 2.. Table 4 The format of test questions in the collocation test 1.. We need to protect the village from _____-scale development.. 2.. ( A ) large ( B ) huge ( C ) great ( D ) big Although defeated as an independent _____ in January, he achieved success two months later in another election.. 3.. (A) candidate (B) applicant (C) competitor (D) contestant It is generally believed that the new president will show a firm _____ to primary education in the country. (A) commitment. (B) determination (C) resolution. (D) perseverance. Polysemy refers to one word form with multiple meanings. According to Macarthy (1990, p.24), learners need to “grapple with the variability of meaning possessed by thousands of words.” Learners are required to understand the different shades of that word other than the most frequent meaning to correctly understand the context the word is embedded in. The author ensured that the meaning of the chosen target word in the test was not the most frequent meaning sense, but rather the second, third or fourth entry based on the corpus data of well-established dictionaries such as Collins COBUILD English. 46.

(56) Dictionary (1995), Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2002). The relevant and appropriate sentence contexts were provided for the target words and distractors had similar word length and were in the same word class as the target word. The three sample test questions are shown below and the final version of the test is shown in Appendix 3.. Table 5 The format of test questions in the polysemy test 1. The video showed that the bat just tipped the ball. ( A ) hit strongly ( B ) hit gently ( C ) hit slowly ( D ) hit quickly 2. I agree that making decisions in a short time is one of my gifts. ( A ) presents ( B ) ideas ( C ) talents 3. Jim and I had a row last year and I haven't seen him since. ( A ) agreement. ( B ) chat. ( C ) argument. ( D ) goals (D ) meeting. The purpose of the third measure of depth of vocabulary knowledge is to tap into learners’ ability to produce correct written form when some letters and Chinese translations of target words are provided as cues to avoid other acceptable alternative answers. The three sample test questions are shown below and the final version of the test is shown in Appendix 4. Table 6 The format of test questions in the productive vocabulary test 1. ______I’m glad we had this o y to talk. (機會) 2. ______New York City, the most populous city in the United States, is home to over 6,154 s______rs. (摩天大樓) 3. ______The thieves buried the t_______ on a deserted island.(寶藏) (Answers : 1. opportunity 2. skyscrapers 3. treasure). Data Collection and Analysis 47.

(57) The translation test was scored based on the CEEC criteria and the researcher, who was an experienced rater and was trained well, was the one to carry out the rating. To ensure intra-rater reliability of the assessment, the exam sheets were marked twice, answers reexamined and scored recalculated. The Productive Written Test was scored by the researcher. The results of other three vocabulary depth tests were collected by computer. After the results of all the five tests were collected, Pearson Correlation and Regression Analysis were employed to investigate the relationships among vocabulary size, vocabulary depth knowledge and translation ability and to explore to what extent vocabulary size and depth knowledge can predict translation ability.. 48.

(58) CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION To measure the relationships between vocabulary knowledge and translation competence and to to investigate the degree to which vocabulary power can affect translation performance, this chapter employed a bivariate approach ( Pearson Product-Moment correlation coefficients) and a multivariate statistics approach (multiple regression) in an attempt to answer the two research questions: 1. Whether there exist significant relationships among vocabulary size, vocabulary depth knowledge and translation ability? 2. To what extent can vocabulary size and depth knowledge predict translation ability?. Correlation Analysis. To answer the first research question and to find out the relationships among vocabulary size, vocabulary depth knowledge and translation ability, the Pearson product-moment correlation was conducted to measure the strength of the linear relationship between pairs of two variables. Via this approach, the following table offers the analysis of the relationships among the two dimensions of vocabulary knowledge (breadth and depth) and translation competence.. 49.