Exploring Young Children's Conceptions of Learning Science Using the Draw-and-tell Technique

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(1)國立臺灣師範大學人類發展與家庭學系博士論文. Exploring Young Children's Conceptions of Learning Science Using the Draw-and-tell Technique. 指導教授：簡淑真博士研究生：林宜慧. 中華民國一百零二年七月.

(2) AKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Shu-Chen Chien, for her inspiring guidance and encouragement throughout the study and the entire process of this dissertation. Meanwhile, I would like to express my appreciation to the members of my dissertation committee, Dr. Jui-Chin Huang, Dr. Hsin-I Pao, Dr. Jyh-Chong Liang and Dr. Shu-Min Chen, for their valuable comments and suggestions for the dissertation. I owe my greatest appreciation to my dear husband, Yu-Hao, for his support, constant encouragement, and making my glorious dream comes true. I want to thank my most beloved son, L. Alex. He provides me the experiences of being a mother, and widens my views of being an early childhood researcher. Finally, I want to thank my great single-father, Mr. Fong-Yi Lin, for his love, care and support.. ii.

(3) Exploring Young Children’s Conceptions of Learning Science Using the Drawand-tell Technique Abstract In the past decade, a growing body of research has focused on students’ conceptions of learning science. With the notion that conceptions of learning science can potentially affect learning approaches, learning processes and learning outcomes, researchers are concerned about the learner’s conceptions of learning science. However, only a few studies have been carried out to explore young children’s conceptions of learning. This current research, therefore, extends the work on the conceptions of learning science to the population of young children in Taiwan with a focus on examining the conceptions of learning science they themselves depicted. A total of 597 young children aged six were recruited to participate in the study. These young children were from 15 kindergartens, including both public and private, located in northern Taiwan. The study was carried out in three phases. First, the children were invited to share their early experiences of learning science. Then, the draw-and-tell technique was adopted. Each child was asked to draw a picture of his/her conceptions of learning science. Finally, after drawing, each child was asked to describe his/her work individually. The results of the study are listed as follows: 1. Through the standard research procedure, 66.8% of all of the young children produced their conceptions of learning science in their drawings. Therefore, the draw-and-tell technique is a potential way of understanding young children’s conceptions of learning. 2. Content analysis was conducted to probe the young children’s conceptions of learning science. In all, 55.4 % of the children demonstrated observation in their drawing, 35.6% presented learning science as listening to the teacher, 30.6% demonstrated that learning science is doing, 27.8% had conceptions of learning science as looking, and 11% illustrated their conceptions of learning science as memorizing. The children’s conceptions of learning science as reading, discussing, recording, measuring, comparing, predicting and thinking were all below 10%. In the category of symbols of learning, objects (71.4%) are regarded as necessary components for learning; 31.6% of the children presented pictures in their drawings of conceptions of learning science, and 14.5% presented books, while technology tools, magnifying glasses, specimens, and inspection boxes were all under 10%. In addition, the hierarchical structure of their conceptions was identified. 3. Since the conceptions of learning science are a composited conception, Pearson’s correlation was used to show the relationships among the young children’s conceptions of learning science. Listening to the teacher, memorizing, looking, reading, observing and thinking were significantly and positively related to the children’s general learning symbols. There were only significant correlations among the learning activities of doing and observing for the scientific learning symbols. 4. The stepwise regression model showed that the general learning symbols drawn by the children were significant predictors of the scientific learning activities of iii.

(4) 5.. listening to the teacher, memorizing, looking, doing, observing, and thinking. The scientific learning symbols that they drew were significant predictors of the scientific learning activities of listening to the teacher, looking, and observing. To further discover the possible features of Taiwanese young children’s conceptions of learning science, their presented cluster patterns in their drawing were explored by cluster analysis. Three groups of conceptions can be identified: the traditional conceptions of learning science, the operational conceptions of learning science, and the mixed conceptions of learning science. The limitations of this study and suggestions for future work are also indicated.. Keywords: young children, conceptions of learning science, the draw-and-tell technique. iv.

(5) 中文論文摘要越來越多的研究在探究台灣不同階段、不同學科領域學習者的學習概念。因此，本研究目的旨在以畫畫與敘說的方法探究399位北台灣（台北市、新北市、桃園縣、新竹縣與苗栗縣）大班幼兒的幼兒科學學習概念。研究分三階段進行，第一階段先與幼兒進行團體討論、分享他們的幼兒園科學學習經驗；第二階段邀請幼兒畫下他們認為的科學學習；第三階段針對其畫作進行幼兒敘述訪談。此外，研究也輔以科學教學觀察與幼兒教師科學的訪談以利資料討論。資料分析的方法為量化內容分析以及質性資料描述。研究結果如下：一、透過畫畫與敘說的技巧，66.8%的幼兒可以清楚地在畫作與敘說表達其科學學習的概念。因此，畫畫與敘說可以作為探究幼兒概念的研究方式。二、對於科學學習的概念，幼兒認為科學學習是觀察呈現 55.4%於幼兒畫作中，認為科學學習是聽老師講述則佔有 35.6%，認為科學學習是動手做占 30.6%，認為科學學習是看占 27.8%，科學學習是記憶占 11.0%，此外，幼兒認為科學學習是閱讀、討論、記錄、測量、比較、預測以及思考則都占 10%以下。而科學學習象徵則有 71.4%的實物、31.6%的圖片與大圖、 14.5%的書本以及 10%以下的科技工具(例如投影機、電視)、放大鏡、標本、觀察箱等。此結果的呈現與歷年來台灣幼兒科學教學強調之觀察、實驗與操作內容相呼應。三、將幼兒學習概念中的學習活動與學習象徵進行相關分析，結果發現：科學學習概念中的聽老師講述、記憶、看、閱讀、觀察及思考與幼兒的一般學 v.

(6) 習象徵（科技工具、書本、圖片與大圖）呈現正相關。而科學學習概念中的動手做及觀察與幼兒科學性學習象徵（放大鏡、實物、標本、觀察箱）呈現正相關。再依據多元迴歸分析發現：幼兒一般性學習象徵可以其科學學習概念為：聽老師講述、記憶、看、動手做、觀察與想。而幼兒科學性學習象徵則可預測其科學學習概念為：聽老師講述、看與觀察。但研究結果未顯示高階的學習概念所倚賴的學習象徵為何。四、依據群集分析發現，可將幼兒科學學習概念分成三種族群：有 126 名幼兒為傳統型科學學習概念者，認為的科學學習為聽老師講述、記憶、看、閱讀、與討論等一般性學習活動，且其學習象徵的表現為一般性學習象徵；有 227 名幼兒為操作型科學學習概念者，認為科學學習為動手做、觀察、與記錄等一般性科學學習活動，且其學習象徵的表現為科學性學習象徵；另有 46 名幼兒為混合型科學學習概念者，除一般性學習活動、一般性科學學習活動也展現出進階的科學學習活動。本研究讓幼兒教育研究與實務者對於台灣幼兒的科學學習概念有更深入的瞭解。文中亦提出相關的研究限制與未來研究建議。. 關鍵字：幼兒、科學學習概念、繪畫敘說. vi.

(7) Table of Contents List of Tables ......................................................................................................... ix List of Figures ........................................................................................................ xi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................... 1 1.1 Background of the Problem ..................................................................... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ......................................................................... 5 1.3 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................ 5 1.4 Research Questions .................................................................................. 6 1.5 Significance of the study .......................................................................... 6 1.6 Assumption .............................................................................................. 7 1.7 Delimitation ............................................................................................. 8 1.8 Definitions of Terms ................................................................................ 8 1.9 Organization of the Study ...................................................................... 10 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................... 11 2.1 The Importance of Children's Perspectives............................................ 11 2.2 Young Children's Conceptions of Learning........................................... 18 2.3 Young Children's Conceptions of Learning Science ............................. 26 2.4 Early Science Education in Taiwan ....................................................... 30 2.5 The Draw-and-tell Technique ................................................................ 33 CHAPTER 3 METHOD ..................................................................................... 42 3.1 Research Purpose and Research Questions............................................ 42 3.2 Research Design..................................................................................... 43 3.3 Participants and Sample ......................................................................... 43 3.4 Instrumentation ...................................................................................... 44 3.5 Data Collection ...................................................................................... 45 3.6 Data Analysis ......................................................................................... 47 3.5 Pilot Study.............................................................................................. 52 CHAPTER 4. RESULTS .................................................................................... 55 4.1 Draw-ant-tell as a Method to Probe Young Children's cocnetpions of Learning Science ................................................................................. 56 vii.

(8) 4.2 Quantitative Content Analysis of Young Chldren's Conceptions of Learning Science ................................................................................. 60 4.3 The Hierarchical Structure of Young Children's Conceptions of Learning Science ................................................................................................ 92 4.4 The Correltaions between the Major Learning Activities and the Learning Symbols ............................................................................... 94 4.5 Multiple Stepwise Regression Analysis of Predicting Young Children's Major Learning Activities Using Their Learning Symbols ................ 99 4.6 The Cluster Analysis of the Young Children's Conceptions of Learning Science .............................................................................................. 102 CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION............................................................................. 109 5.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................... 109 5.2 Implications for Early Science Education............................................ 119 5.3 Limitations ........................................................................................... 121 5.4 Recommendations ................................................................................ 123 REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 125 Appendix 1. The Parent Consent Form............................................................. 141. Appendix 2 The Original Text of Young Children's Drawings and Narrations .... .................................................................................................................... 143. viii.

(9) List of Tables Table 2.1:. Conceptions of learning proposed by eductors ................................ 21. Table 2.2:. A checklist for interpreting student's drawing ................................. 25. Table 2.3:. Content of early childhood science education in Taiwan ................ 31. Table 3.1:. The demographics of the participants .............................................. 44. Table 3.2:. The coding scheme of the young children's conceptions of learning science .............................................................................................. 51. Table 4.1:. Distribution of young children's depictions of conceptions of learning science .............................................................................................. 61. Table 4.2. Examples of young children illustrating observing for learning science .............................................................................................. 66. Table 4.3. Examples of young children showing listening to the teacher for learning science ................................................................................ 70. Table 4.4. Examples of young children showing doing for learning science ... 74. Table 4.5. Examples of young children depicting looking for learning science ... .......................................................................................................... 78. Table 4.6. Examples of young children showing memorizing for learning science .............................................................................................. 81. Table 4.7. The hierarchical structure of conceptions of learning science proposed by the current study .......................................................... 93. Table 4.8. The combined categoris of symbols of learning .............................. 94. Table 4.9. The inter-correlations matrix of the major learning activities and general learning symbols ................................................................. 96. Table 4.10 The inter-correlations matrix of the major learning activities and scientific learning symbols .............................................................. 98. ix.

(10) Table 4.11 Multiple regression analyses for predicting children's learning activities ......................................................................................... 101 Table 4.12 The combined categories of the major learning activities ............. 103 Table 4.13 The cluster analysis of the young children's conceptions of learning science ............................................................................................ 105 Table 4.14 The comparisons of the young children's conceptions of leanring science by the different clusters ..................................................... 108. x.

(11) List of Figures Figure 3.1: A stereotypical image of a young child's thinking about learning science .............................................................................................. 53 Figure 3.2: A young child showing her thinking about learning science ........... 54 Figure 4.1: Flow chart of the process of data analysis ....................................... 56 Figure 4.2: An example of a young child's scribbling ........................................ 58 Figure 4.3: An example of a young child's drawing which was irrelevant to the conceptions of leanring science ....................................................... 58 Figure 4.4: The distribution of the learning location .......................................... 62 Figure 4.5: The distribution of the major leanring activities .............................. 62 Figure 4.6: The distribution of the symbols of learning ..................................... 63 Figure 4.7: An example of a young child's (F7) drawing for going through the checklist ........................................................................................... 64 Figure 4.8: An example of a young child's (D4) perception of a learning location .......................................................................................................... 65 Figure 4.9: An example of a young child (B12) showing comparing for leanring science .............................................................................................. 82 Figure 4.10: An example of a young child (B13) showing the comparing for leanring science ................................................................................ 83 Figure 4.11: An example of a young child (J13) showing reading for leanring science .............................................................................................. 84 Figure 4.12: An example of a young child (B16) showing reading for leanring science .............................................................................................. 85 Figure 4.13: An example of a young child (H9) demonstrating discussing for leanring science ................................................................................ 86. xi.

(12) Figure 4.14: An example of a young child (A10) demonstrating recording for leanring science ................................................................................ 87 Figure 4.15: An example of a young child (O15) demonstrating measuring for leanring science ................................................................................ 88 Figure 4.16: An example of a young child (I14) demonstrating predicting for leanring science ................................................................................ 89 Figure 4.17: An example of a young child (B14) demonstrating thinking for leanring science ................................................................................ 90 Figure 4.18: An example of a young child (B16) demonstrating thinking for leanring science ................................................................................ 90. xii.

(13) CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Problem The field of science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) education has undergone enormous development over the years. Concepts at the heart of STEMcuriosity, creativity, collaboration, and critical thinking- are in demand (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2002). Especially, curiosity and creativity also happen to be innate in young children. Moreover, a growing body of research suggests that developing STEM proficiency starts much earlier than high school, middle school or even elementary school (Moomaw & Davis, 2010). Among STEM, science may be a particularly important domain in early childhood (Worth & Grollman, 2003). Some government statements support that children can learn science and that all children should have the opportunity to become scientifically literate. In order for this learning to happen, the effort to introduce children to the essential experiences of science inquiry and explorations must begin at an early age (National Science Education Standards, 1996; Benchmarks for Science Literacy, 1993). Researchers have noted that the effects of studying science early in life may enhance and accelerate the development of many skills, including language, logic, and problem solving, that are useful in learning other disciplines (Michaels, Shouse, &. 1.

(14) Schweinburger, 2008). From the neurological development perspective, in the first five years of life, the brain is especially sensitive to stimulation, and neural wiring occurs rapidly, so it is a time of rapid learning (Rose, Feldman, & Jankowski, 2009). This stage for young children is a golden opportunity to strengthen reasoning skills, encourage informal experimentation and observation, and help children develop lasting interest in science content areas (Farenga & Joyce,1997). In Taiwan, many researchers have positive attitudes towards early science education in kindergarten and encourage it (Chien, Hsiung, & Chen, 2006). For example, the Preschool Science Curriculum Resource Manual has given impetus to early science education (Chou, 2002). Conceptions of learning science refer to learners’ ideas, understandings, or beliefs about their learning in science, which play an important role in their approaches to learning science, their learning processes as well as the quality of their educational outcomes (Marton, 1988; Dart, 1998; Burnett, Pillay, & Dart, 2003). In the past decade, a growing body of research has focused on students’ conceptions of learning science. With the notion that conceptions of learning science can potentially affect learning approaches, learning processes and learning outcomes, researchers are concerned about learners’ conceptions of learning science. To acquire a better understanding of learning, researchers have devoted efforts to careful. 2.

(15) investigation of how an individual describes what learning is. Burnett et al. (2003) indicated further that students’ learning styles are correlated to their conceptions of learning. If students’ conceptions of learning science can be carefully explored, it will assist educators in promoting their learning outcomes. Recently, considerable concern has arisen over learners’ conceptions of learning in different domains and situations (Chiou & Liang, 2012; Yang & Tsai, 2010; Lin, Liang, & Tsai, 2012). Säljö (1979), the pioneer of research regarding conceptions of learning, carried out an interview in which he asked students to identify how they understood the term “learning.” From their responses, he deduced the following categories: “an increase of knowledge,” “memorizing,” “the acquisition of facts, procedures that can be retained and/or utilized in practice,” “the abstraction of meaning,” and “an interpretative process aimed at the understanding of reality” as five major types of conceptions of learning. Moreover, he led flourishing research on the conceptions of learning (Marton , Dall'Alba, & Beaty,1993; Marshall, Summer, & Woolnough,1999; Tsai, 2004). In terms of subsequent research, Tsai (2004) specifically considered the instructional characteristics in Taiwan and the conceptions of learning particularly related to the domain of science. He defined seven conceptions of learning, namely,. 3.

(16) “memorizing,” “preparing for tests,” “calculating and practicing tutorial problems,” “increase of knowledge,” “applying,” “understanding,” and “seeing in a new way.” However, only a few studies have been carried out to explore young children’s conceptions of learning. Pramling (1988) conducted two observational studies and a series of six interview studies, carried out in the form of individual interviews, with a total of 300 children from the age of 3 to 8 years. Her research illustrated those children’s thoughts on learning, and discovered that they find it difficult to express what learning means. Children’s conceptions of learning were identified by letting them talk about what they had learnt in different contexts, as well as how they had gone about learning those particular skills or phenomena. Children’s conceptions of learning were described according to two related aspects, namely, what they learn and how this learning comes about. Children’s conceptions of what they learn were described as “learning to do,” “learning to know the world” and “learning to understand.” How this learning comes about was described as “learning as doing,” “learning by growing older,” and “learning by experience.” Stekettee (1997) used a phenomenographic approach to explore the conceptions of learning held by six students in the lower, middle and upper grades of primary school. Data collected from a series of in-depth interviews resulted in the identification of six distinctly different conceptions of learning, namely, generic. 4.

(17) learning, physically doing, knowing more things, knowing harder things, searching for meaning, and constructing new understandings. Findings on recent conceptions of learning research (Tsai, 2004), in particular, have suggested the need for further studies with different populations and domains.. 1.2 Statement of the Problem As science becomes more valuable, research on the conceptions of learning science has become increasingly pervasive. This current research, therefore, extends the work on conceptions of learning science to the population of young children in Taiwan with a focus on examining the conceptions of learning science that they themselves depicted.. 1.3 Purposes of the Study Three main purposes guide the current study. The first is to use the draw-and-tell technique to probe the Taiwanese young children’s conceptions of learning science. The second provides a detailed description of the conceptions of learning science that Taiwanese young children hold in preschool conducted by the draw-and-tell technique. Moreover, according to the previous studies, conceptions of learning science are a composited conception; the third purpose is to reconstruct the. 5.

(18) conceptions of learning science which are depicted by the children. The final purpose is to look for patterns among the children’s conceptions of learning science.. 1.4 Research Questions 1.. To what extent is the draw-and-tell technique beneficial to producing Taiwanese young children’s conceptions of learning science?. 2.. According to the drawings elicited from Taiwanese young children and the follow-up narrative phase, what are their conceptions of learning science?. 3.. Conceptions of learning science are a composited conception; therefore, what are the relationships among the Taiwanese young children’s conceptions of learning science?. 4.. What kind of patterns of conceptions of learning science can be categorized among Taiwanese young children?. 1.5 Significance of the Study This study is significant for three reasons. First of all, it provides empirical evidence for Taiwanese young children’s conceptions of learning science. Secondly, the results will help teachers in early childhood in Taiwan better understand young children’s conceptions of learning science thus further assisting young children in. 6.

(19) improving their early science learning. Finally, the information gathered would be beneficial for early childhood researchers and early childhood teachers in Taiwan in designing early science lessons, courses or programs. Accommodating young children’s science learning through improving their conceptions of learning science will potentially make them more successful learners.. 1.6 Assumption The following methodological assumptions are implicit in this study 1. The subjects that participated in the study were sufficiently representative of young children in Taiwan. 2. Measures were sufficiently reliable and valid to afford at least a limited degree of generalization of the findings. 3. The data were reasonably accurate. That is, the subjects worked through the standard draw-and-tell technique as directed by a researcher. 4. The research design, method and data analysis procedures used in this study were appropriate for the intent of the investigation.. 7.

(20) 1.7 Delimitation This study confines itself to investigating Taiwanese young children aged 6, namely kindergarteners. Only those enrolled in early childhood programs who will enter elementary school were included in the study.. 1.8 Definitions of Terms The definitions of the key terms used throughout the study are as follows: Early science Science is both a body of knowledge that represents current understandings of natural systems and the process whereby that body of knowledge has been established and is continually extended, refined, and revised. Both elements are essential: one cannot make progress in science without an understanding of both. Likewise, in learning science one must come to understand both the body of knowledge and the process by which this knowledge is established, extended, refined, and revised (Duschl et al., 2007, p. 26) Early science is a sophisticated interplay among concepts, scientific reasoning, the nature of science, and doing science. Although the facts are important, young children need to begin to build an understanding of basic concepts and how they connect and apply to the world in which they live. The thinking processes and skills of science are. 8.

(21) significant as well. In the current study, early science refers to the young children’s science learning, including scientific content, scientific skills, and scientific affect in kindergarten. Conceptions of learning science (COLS) Conceptions refer to actual experiences, understandings, and conceptualizations that people have of various phenomena (Marton et al., 1993). In the current study, the conceptions of learning science refer to learners’ ideas, understandings, or beliefs about their learning in science. The draw-and-tell technique The draw-and-tell technique is used in order to determine the perceptions of the children (Brackett-Milburn, 1999; Shepardson, 2005). This technique is a diagnostic method that is used in order to understand how children construct thoughts and concepts (McWhirter, Collins, Bryant, Wetton, & Bishop, 2000). The draw-and-tell technique in the current study involves the drawings of the children and explanations of these drawings.. 9.

(22) 1.9 Organization of the Study Chapter 1 of the study has presented the introduction, the background of the problem, the purpose of the study, the questions to be answered, the significance of the study, the assumptions, delimitations, and the definitions of terms. Chapter 2 is a review of the relevant literature. It addresses the following topics: (1) the importance of children’s perspectives, (2) young children’s conceptions of learning, (3) young children’s conceptions of learning science, (4) early science education in Taiwan, and (5) the draw-and-tell technique. Chapter 3 presents the methodology used in the study, including the research design, population and sampling procedure. Each of these sections concludes with a rationale, including the strengths and limitations of the design elements. The chapter goes on to describe the procedures for data collection and the plan for data analysis. Chapter 4 presents the results of the study. Chapter 5 discusses and analyzes the results, culminating in conclusions and recommendations.. 10.

(23) CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This study attempts to adopt drawing as a method of probing Taiwanese young children’s conceptions of learning science. In this chapter, the relevant literature regarding this study is reviewed and discussed. There are five major parts involved in this study. In the first section of this chapter, the relevant literature regarding young children’s perspectives is reviewed. Then, previous research about young children’s conceptions of learning is reviewed in the second section. The third section introduces young children’s specific domain conceptions of learning (e.g., science). The fourth section introduces early science education in Taiwan. Finally, relevant literature about the draw-and-tell method is introduced.. 2.1 The Importance of Children’s Perspectives In the past, adults, including teachers and researchers, neglected children’s culture, and overlooked children’s speech, underestimating their keen observer abilities (e.g., insight and comprehensive ability), and disregarding their ability to provide knowledge to adults (Lincoln, 1995; Oldfather, 1995b). Therefore, previous research on young children has mainly depended on researchers’ observations and the testing of young children. As such, young children seldom showed their own feelings,. 11.

(24) and their opinions were not elicited. The main reason for excluding young children from the research is that it was hypothesized that they were young and lacked the ability to express themselves (Morrow & Richards, 1996). However, after realizing the importance of understanding young children’s perspectives and of listening, the previous conceptions and research approaches have been criticized and replaced (Barker & Weller, 2003). In the last two decades, listening to children’s voices to gain understanding of their learning, lives, and experiences in early childhood programs has gained great importance (Harcourt & Einarsdottir, 2012). This research tendency arises from a constructivist approach (Greig & Taylor 1999: 37): [C]onstructivist researchers perceive the child as a subjective, contextual, self-determining and dynamic being. Moreover, the official documents which view children as strong, knowledgeable, and contributing members of society are the United Nations Convention on the General Comment No.7 (United Nations, 1989) and General Comment No. 7 (United Nations, 2005). The latter specifically points out the right of young children to participate in decision making that affects their lives, and to be empowered to communicate their own views. Accordingly, the amount of research on. 12.

(25) children’s knowledge, perspectives, views and opinions from the children themselves has increased sharply (Harcourt et al., 2012). Parents are the main decision makers of whether children go to school, their school patterns and learning content; however, children are the subject. A dramatic proliferation of educational research has been conducted using the phenomenological approach to inquire into learners’ perceptions of learning (Tsai, 2004; Tsai & Kuo, 2008; Lin et al., 2012). This research has revealed that the insiders’ perspectives which come from the learner differ from the outsiders’ perspectives (Oldfathers, 1995b). Young children’s experiences and perceptions cannot be understood based on outsiders’ deductions and assumptions, but must include the voice of the person involved to make the insider perspective more vivid and complete (Lloyd & Tarr, 2000). Furthermore, from the curriculum development perspective, Goodlad (1979) stated that the learners’ expectations, perceptions and feelings are important. Therefore, he analyzed curricula, determining that there are five different forms of curriculum planning. Among them, the experiential curriculum is what the learners actually experience. A divergence between the curriculum which the teacher conducts and what the children actually experience may exist. For this reason, understanding children’s conceptions will help teachers review their instructional activities.. 13.

(26) Unfortunately, it is uncommon for children’s knowledge and understanding of their own learning to be used to reform teaching and learning (Smith, Duncan, & Marshall, 2005). The early childhood researcher, Katz (1994), mentioned that in addition to the role of governments, parents, staff members, and communities’ perspectives, young children’s perspectives should be adopted in quality early childhood program evaluation, as that is how the program is actually experienced by the participating children. From the point of view of childhood research, some researchers critique that most studies probe young children’s growth and development from the developmental psychology perspective, or inquire into how their behavior is shaped in the social context from the sociology perspective. In this research orientation, children are regarded as “becoming,” that is they are in the process of becoming adults and the outcome of socialization, rather than “being” which can express their own opinion and allow them to participate actively. James, Jenks and Prout (cited in Freeman & Mathison, 2009) proposed a new child-centered research orientation. Their views include: (a) childhood is a unique and important period in the human experience; its value is based on its own unique characteristics, and not on the degree of similarity to the adult world; (b) young children should be regarded as complete individuals with. 14.

(27) their own ideas rather than as immature adults; (c) young children are autonomous subjects, rather than just part of the family or property; parents and family members’ benefits and perceptions should not be considered to equal young children’s perspectives; and (d) young children have the right, free from harm, to express their views and to make decisions regarding the things that affect their lives. Besides, according to the script theory, young children’s event knowledge is organized around the structure of routine and daily activities (Hudson &Nelson, 1983). Scripts, also known as event schemata, are memory structures that are wellknown in the field of cognitive psychology. As adults, young children remember familiar daily experiences in terms of event schema, the basic unit of scripts, which organize data based on past experiences with objects, scenes or events (Mandler, 1983). Experiences coded in script form provide children with organizing devices for interpreting everyday events, like going to nursery school or eating lunch. For young children, scripts begin as very general structures, but with increasing age, they become more elaborate and complex. For example, when children are asked, “What happens at school?” they respond with statements about playing, working, helping, making things, having lunch, taking a nap and going home (Fivush, 1984; Wiltz & Klein, 2001). Script theory, then, is regarded as a developmental link in the progression from early episodic memory to a mature, semantically organized, long-. 15.

(28) term memory store (Hudson et al., 1983), and provides a theoretical structure for the study of preschoolers’ memory competencies in the context of activities that are meaningful to them. It does not, however, describe motivational aspects of experiences that might cause children to form judgments about events. Nor does it lend insight into how children’s scripts influence events or how students learn to become acclimatized to the rules, values, and dispositions necessary to function within institutional settings, such as child care centers. Taylor (2000) also pointed out that with the announcement of the United Nations Convention on the General Comment No.7 in 1989, several studies have made efforts, using appropriate research methods, to probe young children’s perspectives and involve their perspectives and points of view in different subject matter research (Christensen, 2004; Clark, 2005; Cook-Sather, 2002). Wiltz et al. (2001) used classroom observations, field notes, analytical descriptions and interviews to explore 122 children’s likes and dislikes in 4 high quality and 4 low quality classrooms. The result of the study shows that a deeper understanding of the world of childcare emerged to provide an insider’s perspective on the quality differences that affect young children. Wing (1995) used a qualitative method of participant observation and in-depth interviewing to investigate kindergarten and first and second grade children’s. 16.

(29) perceptions of classroom activities. The results indicated that young children are very clear about what is play and what is work. Moreover, Dockett and Perry (2005) explored children’s experiences and expectations of school through their drawings and accompanying written narratives. Using categories established through the Starting School Research Project, children’s drawings and written narratives indicate a focus on how they feel about school, what happens at school, adjusting to school, and the physical context of school. In their study, drawing is discussed as a means of engaging children in research, using approaches that are of interest to children and in which they have a high element of control. The power of drawings and narrative is recognized, and the importance of focusing on the meaning ascribed by children is emphasized. In Taiwan, Hsieh (2012) probed children’s perspectives on learning English in a partial English immersion and a single-period English class. Although these two types of programs differed in terms of the English instruction and duration, the children shared more similarities than differences regarding their perspectives on learning English. The aforementioned studies certainly affirm that young children have a clear understanding of their learning, and are able to provide effective and accurate. 17.

(30) information for the understanding of the school's curriculum, teachers’ teaching and children's learning, which provide academic and practical contributions (Duck, 1977).. 2.2 Young Children’s Conceptions of Learning A conception of learning is a coherent system of knowledge and beliefs about learning and related phenomena (Vermunt & Vermetten, 2004). Säljö (1979), the pioneer of research regarding conceptions of learning, carried out an interview study in which he asked 90 people aged between 15 and 73 at institutions to identify how they understood the term “learning.” From their responses, he deduced the following categories: “an increase of knowledge,” “memorizing,” “the acquisition of facts, procedures that can be retained and/or utilized in practice,” “the abstraction of meaning,” and “an interpretative process aimed at the understanding of reality” as five major types of conceptions of learning. Moreover, he led flourishing research on conceptions of learning (Marton et al., 1993; Marshall et al., 1999; Tsai, 2004). Van Rossum and Schenk (1984) carried out a study with 69 psychology students at a university in the Netherlands. They asked the students to read a short text and then interviewed them about how they had approached the task of reading the text and how they approached their studies in general. Van Rossum and Schenk were able to classify the students into Säljö’s five conceptions of learning. Most of the students. 18.

(31) who showed Conceptions 1–3 had used a surface approach to read the text, while most who showed Conceptions 4 and 5 had used a deep approach. Thus, the approaches to studying that students adopt in particular learning tasks are linked to their conceptions of learning. This provides another reason why educational interventions may be of limited effectiveness: students who hold a reproductive conception of learning through exposure to a subject-based curriculum may simply find it hard to adapt to a more student-centered curriculum (e.g., Newman, 2005). Van Rossum and Taylor (1987) interviewed 91 arts students at a university in the Netherlands. They confirmed the existence of Säljö’s five conceptions of learning, but they found a sixth conception that they characterized as “a conscious process, fuelled by personal interests and directed at obtaining harmony and happiness or changing society.” Van Rossum and Taylor found that men and women were equally likely to hold these various conceptions of learning, but that older students were more likely than younger students to hold the more sophisticated conceptions (Conceptions 4–6). Gibbs, Morgan, and Taylor (1982) also confirmed the existence of Säljö’s five conceptions of learning in 29 students who were taking courses through the distance education with the Open University in the United Kingdom. Marton, et al. (1993) then followed 10 of these students through their studies with the Open University over a period of six years. In their later years of studying, some showed the sixth conception. 19.

(32) of learning found by van Rossum and Taylor, which Marton et al. (1993) called “Changing as a person.” Marton et al. (1993) argued that the six conceptions constituted a hierarchy through which students proceed during the course of their studies in higher education. In terms of subsequent research, Tsai (2004) specifically considered the instructional characteristics in Taiwan and the conceptions of learning particularly directed to the domain of science. He defined seven conceptions of learning, namely “memorizing,” “preparing for tests,” “calculating and practicing tutorial problems,” “increase of knowledge,” “applying,” “understanding,” and “seeing in a new way.” He also suggested that these conceptions could be viewed as a hierarchical structure, from lower to higher levels. That is, the first three conceptions can be treated as lower level conceptions, whereas the latter four can be regarded as higher level.. 20.

(33) Table 2.1 Conceptions of learning proposed by educators Range of conceptions. Säljö, 1979. Marton et al., 1993. Constructivist. An interpretative process aimed at understanding reality Abstraction of meaning. Changing as a person. Seeing something in a different way Understanding. Acquisitions of facts, procedures which can be retained and/or utilized in practice Memorizing Applying. Increase of knowledge. Memorizing. Marshall et al., Tsai, 2004a 1999 (particularly toward the subject of science) A change as a Seeing in a person new way. Seeing in a new way. Understanding. Making sense of physical concepts and procedures. Applying. Applying equations and procedures Memorizing. Increase of knowledge. Increasing one’s knowledge. Calculating and practicing tutorial problems Preparing for the test Memorizing. Reproductive (Cited from Lee, Johanson, & Tsai, 2008, p. 193). Moreover, Tsai (2004) conducted a phenomenographic analysis to explore Taiwanese high school students’ conceptions of learning science, and induced some characteristics of conceptions of learning. First, conceptions of learning are associated with learning approaches, which then affect learning outcomes. Second, students’ 21.

(34) conceptions of learning are influenced by culture. Third, conceptions of learning are related to educational contexts. Fourth, conceptions of learning, to some extent, are domain dependent. Finally, many studies in the line of research have focused on college students, with only a few exceptions which have studied high school students. While there is substantial literature related to conceptions of learning (Säljö, 1979; Marton et al.,1993), there has been very little research investigating young children’s learning. Conceptions of learning are important because there is a substantial body of research which shows that the conceptions held by learners can influence their approaches to learning, which in turn, affect the quality of their learning outcomes (Lee et al., 2008). Therefore, exploring children’s conceptions of learning has become a crucial issue for educational researchers. A pioneer study of young children’s learning was carried out by Pramling. She conducted two observational studies and a series of six interview studies, carried out in the form of individual interviews to investigate the ways in which 3- to 8-year-old Swedish preschool students perceived learning. She identified three main conceptions of learning: (a) Learning as doing: the lowest level conception of learning is described as the process whereby children believe they can learn by doing something; (b) Learning as knowing: the second level conception of learning is described as the process whereby children believe they have learned when they have come to know. 22.

(35) something (e.g., facts, rules); (c) Learning as understanding: the highest level conception of learning is described as the process whereby children believe they have learned when they have come to understand the meaning inherent in an activity or piece of information (Pramling, 1988). Pramling's latter two conceptions of learning as knowing and learning as understanding are essentially a basic variation of the lower level conceptions of learning previously discussed in the sections describing adults' and secondary school students' conceptions of learning. It is interesting to note, however, that the conception of learning as doing is not evident in these studies with older students. This may be a result of the different focus placed on learning in preschools, or it may be a result of developmental progression as students increase in age and learning experience. Doverborg (1987) showed how preschool children perceived what mathematics was all about. They considered it either as an activity that prepared them for school or as a function of dealing with problems here and now. Some children regarded counting as a school activity as, for them, such an activity existed only in the preschool curriculum. On the other hand, one child expressed that “It is important to be able to count so that my brother won’t cheat me on sweets.” That means he/she had a functional conception of counting and could talk about many situations in which it is. 23.

(36) important to be able to count, situations which have meaning for the child (cited from Pramling, 1988). Van Rossum et al. (1984) discovery of a relationship between individuals' conceptions of learning and how they approach learning tasks highlights the importance of identifying conceptions of learning. Their findings have suggested that an individual's conception of learning will influence his or her approach to various learning tasks, which in turn will affect the quality of the learning outcome. For example, a low-level conception of learning will lead to a surface approach to learning (e.g., rote rehearsal), whereas a higher level conception of learning will lead to a deep approach to learning (e.g., elaboration). To complete this relationship, they assert that surface approaches lead to less effective learning outcomes compared to deep approaches which lead to high-level, quality learning outcomes. In Taiwan, Wang and Tsai (2012) investigated elementary school students’ conceptions of learning in Taiwan by using the drawing technique. They concluded five categories: (1) learning location, (2) major learning activity, (3) symbols of knowledge, (4) symbols of study, and (5) people involved. More details of the checklist for interpreting students’ drawings are shown in Table 2.2.. 24.

(37) Table 2.2 A checklist for interpreting student’s drawing Categories Indicators and Descriptions (1) Learning Location 1.1 Inside a classroom. 1.2 Outside a classroom: such as in the library, at a museum, outdoors or at a park. (2) Major Learning Activity 2.1 Listening or Lecturing: students are listening to the teacher’s lectures. 2.2 Reading or writing: Students are reading a book or doing their homework. 2.3 Talking or Discussing: The students are discussing or having conversations with others. 2.4 Others: Students are doing something without a formal academic purpose, e.g., running on the track, camping, playing with their classmates. 2.5 Can’t tell: there are no learning activities presented or students are doing some activities that cannot be defined. (3) Symbols of Study 3.1 Stationery: pencils, erasers, or notebooks. 3.2 Desk and chair. 3.3 Chalkboard. 3.4 Bookshelves. 3.5 Technology tool: such as a TV, computers or projectors. (4) Symbols of Knowledge 4.1 Books 4.2 Learning content: information about school subjects, such as Chinese characters or mathematical formulas on the chalkboard. (5) People Involved 5.1 Teachers 5.2 Students (Cited from Wang & Tsai, 2012, p. 615). 25.

(38) 2.3 Young Children’s Conceptions of Learning Science As previously mentioned, conceptions of learning are domain dependent. Therefore, a growing body of studies provides a picture of how learners at different educational levels conceive of learning in different fields: how they account for what is learnt, the purpose and uses of learning, the kinds of actions and processes involved, and the environmental and mental conditions supporting learning (Marton & Säljö, 1976). These conceptions work as a sort of hinge between the person who learns and the culture of which she or he is a part. In other words, conceptions of learning present a personal or subjective dimension, and at the same time, are entrenched in particular folk psychologies and pedagogies shaped within given historical times and cultural spaces (Olson & Bruner, 1996). Children’s conceptions of how learning occurs begin in early childhood, which is related to what specific learning content they are immersed in. Pramling’s phenomenographical studies (1996) have shown that in preschool years, children progress from conceiving learning as doing, to conceiving it as knowing and, at a further level, as understanding. More recently, it has been proposed that children’s conceptions of learning and teaching form implicit theories (Strauss, Ziv, & Stein, 2002). A shift from a direct theory of learning to an interpretive theory takes place during the period extending from the preschool years to early adolescence. A direct. 26.

(39) theory emphasizes factors that act on the learners from the outside and provoke cumulative learning products consisting of exact copies of external objects or models. In contrast, an interpretive theory is focused on agent learners who activate mental representations throughout the learning process. A constructive theory of learning has been identified in young people and adults who have reflected on the learning process in greater depth. They understand learning in terms of complex and dynamic processes of self-regulation and expression of their knowledge, and acknowledge that learning leads to transformations both in knowledge and in the learners themselves. A number of authors (Crawford, Gordon, & Prosser, 1994; Lonka, Joram, & Bryson, 1996) have viewed conceptions of learning as being closely related to specific subjects and classrooms. Van Rossum et al. (1984) identified that students’ learning conceptions provide a clear indication of qualitatively different views on learning, and seem to be strongly connected to different ways of thinking and acting, including the adoption of different study strategies. Moreover, the conception of learning held by the student is seen as a part of a developmental process capable of stimulation or inhibition by contextual factors. Even though some authors (e.g., Tversky & Kahneman, 1971) have emphasized the enduring nature of informal knowledge, the type of teaching experienced by students may well influence the way. 27.

(40) in which they conceive learning and their personal constructs of themselves as learners. Young children’s conceptions of learning science One of the strongest themes in the National Science Education Standards (NSES) (National Research Council 1996) and Benchmarks for Science Literacy (Benchmarks) (American Association for the Advancement of Science 1993) is that all children can learn science and that all children should have the opportunity to become scientifically literate. In order for this learning to happen, the effort to introduce children to the essential experiences of science inquiry and explorations must begin at an early age. However, research on young children’s science learning is underrepresented in the science education corpus, and science has been overlooked in early childhood education as well (Jones, Lake, & Lin, 2008). In order to effectively support young children’s natural curiosity about science, to develop scientific literacy for all children, and to increase the likelihood of children’s future participation in sciencerelated careers, we must first better understand the knowledge and perspectives that children bring with them from their everyday experiences about learning science. Children’s interest in science is vital for effective science learning, particularly in developing their confidence in dealing with science in terms of curiosity and. 28.

(41) methodical inquiry. When children reach the post-primary school stage, they will have experienced seven years of schooling, and by this stage will have developed their own attitudes towards science. Murphy and Beggs (2003) carried out an extensive survey of primary children’s attitudes towards science and found that most of the older pupils (10-11 years) had significantly less positive attitudes than younger ones (8-9 years) towards science enjoyment, even though the older pupils were more confident in their ability to do science. Other research into children’s conceptions of learning science has focused on the role of the primary teacher. Researchers have pointed towards problems linked to primary teachers’ insufficient scientific knowledge background and their lack of confidence in teaching science. Some studies have criticized the level of the content of some areas of primary science. Murphy, Beggs, Hickey, O’Meara, and Sweeney (2001) showed that even tertiary level students, including those who had experienced compulsory school science from the ages of 11-16 and some with post-16 science qualifications, could not correctly answer questions in some primary science tests, which had been written for 11-year-olds.. 29.

(42) 2.4 Early Science Education in Taiwan Science education in early childhood is of great importance to many aspects of a child’s development, and researchers suggest that science education should begin during the early years of schooling (Eshach & Fried, 2005; Watters, Diezmann, Grieshaber, & Davis, 2000). In Taiwan, Chien et al. (2006) deemed that the goals of early childhood science education are to let children believe that they have the ability to do science, to inquire about questions, maintain curiosity, and explore with enjoyment. The content of early childhood science education in Taiwan was developed from the Preschool Curriculum Standards (幼稚園課程標準) (Ministry of Education, 1987), the Preschool Science Curriculum Resource Manual (幼兒園幼兒課程資源手冊) (Chou, 2002), the Fiveyear-old Preschoolers’ Basic Ability and Curriculum Standards （我國五歲幼兒基本能力與學力指標建構研究）（Lu et al., 2003）, the Young Children’s Basic Science Ability Index (幼兒基本科學能力指標研究) （Chen et al., 2003）and the Preschool Curriculum Outline (幼兒園教保活動課程暫行大綱) (Ministry of Education, 2012). The abovementioned fundamental documents can be analyzed into scientific cognition (concepts), scientific ability (procedure abilities) and scientific affect (attitudes). The descriptions of these fundamental documents are presented in Table 2.3.. 30.

(43) Table 2.3 Content of early childhood science education in Taiwan scientific scientific ability scientific affection cognition (procedure (attitudes) (concepts) abilities) animals, plants, observation, curiosity, Preschool rearing, planting, comparison, responsibility, Curriculum natural classification, cooperation, Standard phenomena, pairing, analogy, objectivity, natural sequence, caution, environment, presentation, confidence, human body, experimentation, presentation, health knowledge, application, volunteering, power, machines, inference creation, materials appreciation Observation, curiosity, inquiry, Preschool Science earth science (water, classification, empiricism, Curriculum comparison, objectivity, Resource Manual atmosphere, meteorological prediction, caution, patience, phenomena, experimentation, care ground), physical recording, world (light, fire, inducing, making electric power, inferences, magnetism, sound, communication machines), biological world (plants, animals) Five-year-old Preschoolers’ Basic Ability and Curriculum Standard. objects characteristics, animals, plants, earth environment. Young Children’s Basic Science Ability Index. physical science, life science, earth science. Preschool Curriculum Outline (in cognitive domain). animals, plants, weather, temperature, stones, sand, light, and shadow. observation, comparison, classification, manipulation, simple scientific activities observation, comparison, classification, recording, measuring, experimentation, communication, prediction, expression, exploration information gathering, information sorting, and problem solving. 31. curiosity, exploration, attempt, happy to be in touch with natural science curiosity, attempt, feel the pleasure of discovery, demonstrate the truth, persistence and patience, open mind, cooperation, facing failure, enjoying manipulation active exploration, communication, cooperation.

(44) These documents guide Taiwan’s early science education. The key points of science education in early childhood in Taiwan are to lead young children to explore and discover facts, rather than obtaining scientific knowledge. How do Taiwanese young children learn science in school? There are five approaches to early science learning. First, early science education is carried out as theme instruction. Second, early science education integrates science with other subjects, the so-called topic-oriented approach. Young children can explore the same subject in different disciplines. Third, early science learning is conducted by unit instruction. Fourth, the incidental teaching method, namely, a child-directed teaching method in which the child's motivation initiates an instructional opportunity to teach science. Fifth, explore and discover in the learning area (Lin, 2008). In conclusion, there are several reasons to start teaching science during the early childhood stage. First, young children have a natural tendency to enjoy observing and thinking about nature (Eshach et al., 2005). They are also motivated to explore the world around them, and early science experiences can capitalize on this inclination. Second, developmentally appropriate engagement with quality science learning experiences is vital to help children understand the world, collect and organize information, apply and test ideas, and develop positive attitudes toward science. Engaging in science allows for the development of scientific thinking (Ravanis &. 32.

(45) Bagakis, 1998). Supporting young children as they develop scientific thinking during the early childhood years can lead them to easily transfer their thinking skills to other academic domains which may support their academic achievement and their sense of self-efficacy (Kuhn & Pearsall, 2000).. 2.5 The Draw-and-tell Technique Previous studies on conceptions of learning have predominantly been carried out using phenomenography (Marton, 1981). The phenomenographic structure of these studies has been quite similar, although most have been carried out in different contexts and independently of each other (Eklund-Myrskog, 1998). Within the phenomenographic structure, studies are aimed at describing conceptions of learning as experienced or understood by groups of students. According to Dockrell, Lewis, and Lindsay (2000), there are various ways to assess children’s perspectives. Both direct and indirect measures can be used. As they explain, “direct measures involve asking the child or significant other about the child’s views and understandings of a situation or getting the child to solve a task that is known to address certain key developmental achievements” (p. 49). Indirect measures include the use of particular methods and techniques in order to measure the variable of interest. The use of indirect measures requires a high degree of inference. 33.

(46) and interpretation of the instruments and techniques employed, which implies a greater risk of misinterpreting the collected data (Dockrell et al., 2000). Interviews figure among prominent direct measures of children’s perspectives (Lewis, 2002). This method can be useful, particularly with young children who are not fluent readers and writers. Michel (1994) points out that by listening carefully to what children say about literacy, we can understand things that we cannot learn in other ways. However, there are some concerns with respect to the validity and reliability of children’s responses to interviews (Lewis, 2002). Thus, researchers need to take into account the practical difficulties and implications involved in conducting and using children’s interviews to assess children’s ideas and understandings. There are important considerations regarding the appropriate examination of children’s perspectives through interviews. The interview format is very important, especially with young children (Dockrell et al., 2000). Thus, it should be carefully planned. In considering the most effective ways in which to put questions to children, Dockrell et al. emphasize using open-ended questions, avoiding yes/no questions, and using appropriate language. The use of open-ended questions allows young children to answer in their own terms and to extend their responses (Lewis, 2002). Closed questions (e.g., yes/no questions) tend to inhibit children’s full expression, which is crucial to obtain valid responses about their understandings and ideas (Lewis, 2002).. 34.

(47) Moreover, appropriate wording of the interview questions, congruent with the child’s developmental level, would contribute to the validity of the information provided through the interview. Another consideration related to the validity of young children’s responses is the interviewer. Lewis (2002) describes the appropriate role of the interviewer as “facilitative and non-intrusive.” This is particularly relevant in the case of young children. Children have demonstrated a tendency to agree with the interviewer and to be very vulnerable to leading questions or comments and to recurrent probing for details (Dockrell et al., 2000). Certainly, a valid and reliable interview is critical in assessing children’s ideas and understandings. Therefore, piloting interviews are a necessary condition to obtain “reasonably unbiased data” (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007). By piloting interviews it is possible to test both questions and procedures. Among other things, researchers should be alert to communication problems, the wording of the questions, evidence of inadequate motivation of the participants, ambiguous questions or statements, and questions that can be interpreted differently by different participants (Gall et al., 2007). In conclusion, previous research on children’s conceptions of learning literacy has relied on interviews. However, interview protocols should be evaluated. 35.

(48) individually in order to determine the validity and reliability of these instruments. Moreover, interviews to be conducted with young children have to be carefully planned and tested considering aspects such as the nature of the questions, the complexity and structure of the language employed, the appropriate role of the interviewer, and the developmental characteristics of young children. It is also important to acknowledge the limitations involved in research based on children’s perspectives. Lewis (2002) states, “accessing children’s views can never be achieved ‘perfectly.’” Moreover, learners’ conceptions of learning have been measured through both qualitative and quantitative methods (e.g., Lee et al., 2008). Among these approaches, drawing has been recommended as a useful method for probing students’ ideas (Ehrlen, 2009; Selwyn, Boraschi, & Ozkula, 2009). Moreover, researchers have indicated that drawing is a more adequate approach to assessing young children than other tests (Dove, Everret, & Preece, 1999; Finson, Beaver, & Cramond, 1995). Drawing is one of the many languages which children use to 'talk' about their world, both to themselves and to others (Gallas, 1994; Lindqvist, 2001). Through drawing, children can re-present action, emotion, ideas or experiences (Malchiodi, 1998). According to the drawing theory, Lowenfeld (1947) argues that there are six clearly defined stages of artistic development and that these stages can be witnessed. 36.

(49) in the artworks of children. In the scribble stage (1-3 years old), children are engaged in the physical activity of drawing, but there is no connection made between the marks and representation during most of this stage. Children at the preschematic stage (3-4 years old) are beginning to see connections between the shapes that they draw and the physical world around them. Circles and lines may be described as people or objects that are physically present in the child’s life. It is in this stage that a child first makes the connection to communicating through their drawings. Children at the schematic stage (5-6 years old) have clearly assigned shapes to objects that they are attempting to communicate. They often have developed a schema for creating drawings. There is a defined order in the development of the drawing. Drawings at this stage have a clear separation between the sky and the ground. Often the sky is a strip of blue at the top of the paper, while the ground is a strip of green at the bottom. Objects are often placed on the ground instead of floating in space. Objects of importance are often drawn larger than objects of lesser importance. Therefore, children’s drawings have been utilized for purposes such as information gathering, clinical diagnosis, and intelligence testing in the behavioral and cognitive research areas (Thomas & Jolley, 1998). However, so far, children’s drawings have seldom been analyzed within educational contexts (Haney, Russell, & Bebell, 2004). Therefore, the drawing method merits further investigation.. 37.

(50) Diem-Wille (2001) noted that, “pictures, drawings, and metaphors show a person’s emotional state of mind much better than verbal definitions or descriptors” (p. 119), suggesting that drawings may be a particularly powerful way of accessing information about students’ affective experiences. Moreover, children with low literacy, English language learners, and pupils with certain special needs (e.g., intellectual impairment, speech-language impairment) may particularly benefit from expressing their viewpoints through drawings (Wheelock, Bebell, & Haney, 2000b). Additionally, Thomas et al. (1998) cited studies showing that drawing pictures helped children recall and express more detail about the events they depicted. They also noted that children are generally receptive to drawing, making it a useful ‘icebreaking’ activity and a potential way of mediating student shyness. Drawing is considered a valuable means of providing multimodality learning opportunities for young children as a way to express meaning in different ways (Pahl, 2001). Children have a natural disposition to use symbols, such as drawings, to represent their thinking and to process information. For Tversky (2008), children's drawings represent their mental images, recollections, or reconstruction of what they have been thinking. Moreover, drawings can omit and distort things that actually exist, and add things that are not there. In Taiwan, Hsieh (2012) also employed drawing as one of the methods to understand children’s perspectives on learning. 38.

(51) English in a partial English immersion and a single-period English class in Taiwan. The children’s descriptions and drawings truly revealed the instruction and activities in the two English classes. Accordingly, children are capable of providing valuable information about curricula. For the purpose of the current study, therefore, our focus is the representation of children's thinking, rather than presentations of reality. The draw-and-tell technique The draw-and-tell technique is used in order to determine the perceptions of the children (Brackett-Milburn, 1999; Shepardson, 2005). This technique involves the drawings of the children and the explanations of these drawings. This technique is a diagnostic method that is used in order to understand how children construct thoughts and concepts (McWhirter, Collins, Bryant, Wetton, & Bishop, 2000). The children are asked to draw a picture of what comes to mind when they hear the words “learning science” and “literacy,” and then to explain their drawings. Wright (2007) combined the visual channel (what can be looked at) with the verbal channel (what is said) in the technique she calls draw-and-tell. In this technique, the researcher asks children to draw something in relation to a specific subject and then asks them to explain what their drawing means to them. This method is usually used to keep a focus on the lived experiences and on the perspectives of children. For example, it was used by MacDonald (2009) to investigate how children. 39.

(52) experience their first day at school. The study highlights the nature of children’s experiences as they start school, and how both oral and visual narratives can be effectively combined to access the lived experiences of young children. Stafstrom, Goldenholz and Dulli, (2005) used the same technique to investigate headaches experienced by children. Therefore, the draw-and-tell technique could be appropriate to investigate children’s perspectives. Draw-and-tell gives children the opportunity to create and share meaning using two modes, which embrace distinctive features in the following ways: (a) non-verbal: graphic depiction (stemming from imagery and visual-spatial memory); bodilykinaesthetic communication through enaction and expressive gesture (stemming from motor memory); (b) verbal: telling the drawing (talking about the drawing's characters, objects, events, sequencings, graphic details or other relevant characteristics, which often includes onomatopoeia [i.e., the use of a word or vocal imitation of the thing or action designated]). In very young children, we need to look for another vehicle of expression beyond verbal explanation. Because children begin to draw at a young age, we decided on drawing as the representational tool. For young children, even their scribbles represent something. Browne and Woolley (2001) found that children as young as 2 are intentional in their naming of drawings, and that among 5- to 6-year-olds their. 40.