Chiao Da Managemenl Review l令1.32No. 2,2012 pp.77-104
領導與部屬交換關條、內外控人格對
於員工工作態度之影響一心理賦能之
中介效果
Effects of Leader-Member Exchange and Locus of
Control on Job Attitudes: The Mediation of Psychological
Empowerment
陳春希 1 Chun-Hsi Vivian Chen 國立中央大學企業管理學系
Department of Business Administration, National Central University 張緯杰 Wei-ChiehChang
因立中央大學企業管理學系
Department of Business Administration, National Central University 李旭梅 Hsu-MeiLee
大業大學人力資源暨公共關係、學系
Department of Human Resource and Public Relations, Da-Yeh University 袁梅玲 M訓-LingYuan
國立中央大學企業管理學系
Department of Business Administration, National Central University
摘要:以台灣高科技公司之研發工程師為對象,本研究探討領導與部屬交換 關條與內外控人格對於員工工作滿意度、情~承諾和離職傾向的影響,以及 員工心理賦能的中介影響效果。 研究結果顯示領導與部屬交換關條與內外控 人格會正向影響員工的心理賦能 ;心理賦能會正向影響員工的工作滿意度與 情戚承諾,以及負向影響其離職傾向 。 此外,員工心理賦能對於領導與部屬 交換關靜、與員工的工作滿意度和情成承諾之間具有完全中介效果;員工的內
1 Corresponding author: Department of Business Administratio口,National Central Universi旬, 1hongli C旬,Taiwan E-mail: cvchen@mgt.ncu.edu.tw
78 EJJects of Leader-Member Exchange and Locus ofControl on Job Attitudes The Mediation of Psychological Empowerment
外控人格亦會經由心理賦能之完全中介進而影響其情~承諾 。 本研究建議組 織可致力於垮養主管與部屬之間良好的交換關餘,以及選用具有內控人格的 成員,如此將有助於提升內部員工的心理賦能,進而增進其工作滿意度與情 戚承諾 。 關鍵詞:領導與部屬交換關條:內外控人格;心理賦能;工作滿意度;情戚 承諾;離職傾向
Abstract: This study examines the inf1uence of leader-member exchange (LMX)
and locus of control on psychological empowerme肘,and the subsequent effect of
psychological empowennent on employees' job satisfaction
,
affectivecommitment
,
and intention to leave. Data were collected from 316 R&D engineers in Taiwan. The results confinned that L心1xand locus of control have significant effects on employees' psychological empowe口nent. Psychological empowennent has a positive effect on employees' job satisfaction and a能ctive commitment,
and a negative effect on their intention to leave. It is also found thatpsychological empowerment fully mediates the relationships between LMX,
employees' job satisfaction, and affective commitment. ln addition, psychological empowennent fully mediates the relationship between employees' locus of control and affective commitment. The findings suggest that the cultivation of a good LMX and selection of employees with intemal locus of control are conducive to elevating employees' perceived psychological empoweπne帥, and thus yielding a
higher level of job satisfaction and affective commitment on employees
Keywords: Leader-Member Exchange; Locus of Control; Psychological
Empowennent; Job Satisfaction; Affective Commitment; lntention to Leave
1. Introduction
Leadership, a crucial factor of energizing and motivating employees, promotes achievement of organizational goals and success (Avey et al.
,
2008). It relates significantly to organizational perfonnance (Janssen and Van Yperen, 2004;Chiao Da Managemenl Reνlew均 1.32 No. 2. 2012 79
Liden et a/., 2006; Chen et a/., 2007; Erdogan and Enders, 2007). Leaders are able to build up a trustful and supportive c1imate that encourages employees' participation and dedication. Aubé et a/. (2007) argue that subordinates regard organizational support as respect and consideration of their supervisors. This organizational support, in retum, reinforces subordinate trust in their leaders as well as the relationship between subordinates and supervisors
8ased on the social exchange theory, scholars (Dansereau et a/., 1975) propose that the leader-member exchange (LMX) characterizes dyadic and reciprocal relationship between supervisors and subordinates. Subordinates tend to adjust their behaviors in accordance with their supervisors' expectations Likewise
,
supervisors may adopt the similar strategy to obtain full devotion from their subordinates. With characteristics of reciproci吟, support, loyalty, and trust, the social exchange between supervisors and subordinates does not only encourage subordinates to go beyond their norrnal duties, but also fosters their positive job attitudes (Liden et a/., 2000). When perceiving the well established exchange relationship,
subordinates tend to consider their supervisors trustworthy and thoughtful of employees' well-being,
which will subsequently enhance greater efforts towards the tasks and devotion to the organizations. Despite the fact that the effect of LMX on work-related outcomes has been confirrned by the prior studies, research of investigating the psychological process is still scanty (Aryee and Chen, 2006)Employees' perception of empowe口nentoriginates from the support oftheir supervisors (Corsun and Er眩, 1999). Employees will experience meaningfulness and self-worth from work equipped with that support. Various leading tactics adopted by supervisors may result in diverse leader-member exchange quality that can subsequently affect the perceived empowerrnent and behaviors of employees In addition
,
employees' locus of control plays a critical role at work since the notion of control beliefs relates with a variety of individual cognitive, affective, behavioral, and physiological outcomes (8andura, 1986; De 8rabander et a/., 1992; Jude and 80no, 2001; Ng et al., 2006). 8elieving in dominating their own work roles,
intemals are prone to attempting taking great control in work settings (Spector,
1982). The emphas80 Effects of Leader-Member Exchange and Locus of Control on Job Attiludes
The Mediation of Psychological Empowerment
antecedents of psychological empowenne訓, and leads to more positive affective reactions towards their work (Spretizer, 1995; Koberg et al.
,
1999; Ng et al.,
2006).Employees nowadays are confronted with ongoing challenges and ever-changing uncertainties, especially those in the R&D department. Leading the R&D engineers to come up with breakthroughs, keep up theiI spirits
,
and devote themselves to the organizations has become a crucial task for contemporary leaders in dynamic circumstance. According to Elkins and Keller (2003), the R&D personnel import scientific and technological infonnation (STI), transfonn it into technological innovations in the fonn of ideas, products,
or processes, and then export these innovations to other units of the organization. Compared to employees at other units,
the R&D personnel are endowed with a greater control of work setting in tenns of initiative and independence. In spite of the fact that the effect of LMX quality on work-related outcomes through the mediation ofempowennent is suggested by scholars (Liden et al., 2000; Aryee and Chen, 2006), an in-depth investigation will further veri勾 the conditions that trigger the
effect of leadership required for successes in the R&D setting (Berson and Linton, 2005; Keller, 2006; Shin and Zhou
,
2007), and prevent the negative consequences such as psychological withdrawal behavior (Aryee and Chen, 2006) and intention to leave. Besides, researchers (Thomas and Velthouse, 1990; Spreitz仗, 1995) propose the effect of locus of control on employees' psychological empowe口nentIn order to bridge the gaps in leadership and locus of control literature, this study investigates the effects of LMX and locus of control on employees' psychological
empowenne帥, and the consequent effects on their job satisfaction, affective commitment, and intention to leave for R&D engineers in Taiwan.
2. Literature Review and Hypotheses
2.1. LMX-
Psychological EmpowermentOriginally proposed by Graen and his colleagues (Dansereau, Cashman, and Graen
,
1973; Dansereau,
Graen, and Haga, 1975; Graen, 1976; Graen andChiao Da Management Reνiew ~包1.32 No. 2, 2012 81
Cashman, 1975), the leader-member exchange (LMX) refers to the quality of the social exchange between leaders and subordinates
,
which is characterized by mutual trust,
respect,
and obligation (Gerstner and Day,
1997). The LMX theory proposes that time pressures and limited organizational resources cause supervisors to develop different kinds of relationships with subordinates who may be categorized as in-group or out-group (Dienesch and Liden, 1986). Those who have attitudes and personalities similar to the supervisor 注, or who exhibit a higher level of competence, are c1assified as the in-group. Members of the in-group are highly trusted and obtain more attention, suppo肘,and organizational resources from their supervisor (Gomez and Rosen, 2001; Chen et al., 2007). For subordinates in the out-group,
relationship with the supervisor is primarily based on formal official interactions. Employees who trust their supervisor become more enterprising at work, and are more assertive and motivated to accomplish duties (Costigan et at., 2006; Harris et al., 2007). Supervisors tend to delegate authority based on subordinates' competence and accountability. Meanwhil巴, supervisors will trust and delegate more responsibility to in-group members (Bauer and Green, 1996).Psychological empowe口nent as a motivational construct comprises
individual cognitions and perceptions that inc1ude personal behavioral and psychological investment in work (Koberg et al., 1999). In other words,
psychological empowerment is employees' psychological interpretation or
reaction to empowering conditions from organization (Spence Laschinger et a/.,
2004). Based on the research of Conger and Kanungo (1988)
,
Thomas andVelthouse (1990) define psychological empowerment as intrinsic motivation
manifested in four concepts, i.e.
,
meaning, competence,
self-determination,
and impact, which can reflect employees' orientation to their work role. Spreitzer (1995) combines these four concepts into an overall construct of psychological empowermentMeaning represents the compatibilities between the requirements of work roles and employees' belie品, values, and behaviors. Competence refers to employees' be!iefs in their capacity for skill臼lIy performing work-related activities. Self-determination reflects employee autonomy over the initiation and
82 Effects of Leader-Member Exchange and Locus ofControl on Job Attitudes The Mediation of Psychological Empowerment
continuation of work plans and processes, for example, making decisions about work methods and pace. lmpact represents the degree of which a person can
influence strategic, administrative, or operating outcomes at work. With the
approval and support of their supervisors, employees will thus feel
psychologically empowered for obtaining greater negotiating latitudes and self-worth from work (Keller and Dansereau, 1995; Gomez and Rosen, 2001). As Koberg et a/. (1999) argue
,
employees receive greater responsibility delegationwhen experiencing better exchange relationship with supervisors. The increased level of authorization strengthens their self-worth and improves performance in retum. According to Locke and Schweiger (1979)
,
a greater extent of manager's empowering employees with decision-making responsibilities (Cotton, 1993; Mohrman and Lawl缸, 1989; Spreitzer, 1996) will foster trust within theorganization and strengthen employees' sense of control and identification with
the organization. Previous research also verifies that empowerment enables
employees to be better informed and to extend their participation in
decision-making and other organizational activities (Spreitzer, 1996)
The quality of LMX between supervisors and subordinates correlate with
the di缸erent levels of affective support, empowe口ne肘, and available
organizational resources that subordinates receive from supervisors (Liden et al., 2000). Daft (1995) maintains that supervisors share power through empowerment with subordinates to complete their duties autonomously. Their positive emotional
ties wiU strengthen subordinates' belief of their own influence on certain strategic and administrative outcomes in their work unit (Ergeneli et a/.
,
2007). 8ased onthe above arguments, the first hypothesis of this study proposes
Hl: The quality
0/
LMX relates positively ω subordinates'psychological empowermenι
2.2.
Locus of Control - Psychological EmpowermentLocus of control refers to the degree of which people believe that they
,
ratherthan extemal forces
,
determine what happens in their lives (Rotter, 1966)Chiao Da Management Review均 1.32 No. 2. 2012 83
the work settings through their behaviors
,
while extemals would attribute controlto outside forces. Hence
,
intemals tend to depend on themseJves withoutsupervision and are more satisfied with participative Jeadership style (Spector
,
1982)
Deci and Ryan (1980) regard the psychological demand for self-determination and competence as the elements of individual intrinsic
motivation. Being motivated by work goals and obtaining an ideal job, intemals
are more likely to trigger greater intrinsic motivation out of their desire for
self-determination and competence in performing their tasks. Therefore, intemals
have a better sense of task competence out of their confidence in their ability to
control the task and to achieve valuable outcomes (Ng et 仗, 2006)
Empowerment per se is a motivational process of individuals experiencing being
enabled. With the belief of being able to exert inf1uence in organizational
decisions and outcomes via their self-determined behaviors and competence,
employees may obtain a better sense of empowe口nentas well as meaningfulness
in their work (Corsun and E凹, 1999). For this reason, intemals may have a better
sense of empowerment than extemals, because they believe in being able to take
control and make choices in their work, which often indicates potential power
(Liden and Arad
,
1996). Moreover,
intemals tend to believe in their ability ofmaking signi日 cant impact on strategic, administrativ巴, or operating outcomes at
work. Based on these findings
,
the second hypothesis ofthis study proposesH2: Internal locus 0/ control relales positively 10 employees' psychological empowerment.
2.3. Psychological Empowerment . Job Attitude
Thomas and Velthouse (1990) argue that empowerment is multifaceted and
cannot be summarized by a single concept in terms of its essence. Spreitzer (1995)
concludes that the measures used by organizations to empower employees for
obtaining meaning, competence, self-determination, and impact from work
ultimately increase their motivation levels. Empowering employees implies
84 Effects 01 Leader-Member Exchange and Locus 01 Contro/ on Job Attitudes
The Mediation 01 Psych%gica/ Empowerment
the development of their sense of personal effica呵,which in tum translates into a positive job attitude and behavior (Conger and Kanungo
,
1988). As Hackman and Oldham (1975) indicate that employees experience meaningfulness,
responsibilities, and knowledge of the entity of the work, better performance and satisfaction as well as the lower rate of absenteeism and tumover of employees will be achieved. The dimensions of meaning, competence, and self-deter宜lÍnationare found to be related to employees' job satisfaction (Liden et al.
,
2000; Spreitzeret al., 1997; Aryee and Chen, 2006; Spector, 1986). Prior research indicates that psychologically empowered employees tend to make commitment and display extra-role behaviors (Avolio et al. 2004; Eisenberger et al., 1990; Kraimer et al., 1999). They have greater identification with and attachment to the organization, i.e., affective commitment (Liden et
a
l., 2000), and thus are more motivated to achieve organizational goals (Mowday et al.,
1982; Meyer and Allen,
1984). Ito and 8rotheridge (2005) also indicate that employees' intention to leave is lower when they can participate in organizational decision-making,
experience autonomy at work,
and have managerial support for their career promotion. In addition,
the meta-analysis performed by Spector (1986) shows a negative correlation between perceived control and employees' intention to leave the organization. 8ased on these findings,
this study presents a third set of hypotheses:H3a: Psychological empowerment relates positively ω employees' job satisfaction.
H3b: Psychological empowerment relates positively 10 employees' a.o告ctivecommitmenl.
H3c: Psychological empowermenl relales negatively 10 employees' intenlion 10 leave.
2
.4.
Mediating Role of Psychological EmpowermentIt is argued that employees who maintain better relationships with their leaders tend to feel more empowered and are more motivated to perform
Chiao Da Managemenl Reνiew 均1. 32 No. 2, 2012 85
effectively (Chen and Klimoski, 2003; Liden et al., 2000; Chen et α1. , 2007) Individuals with intemal locus of control are prone to have a higher level of confidence in their ability to undertake tasks (Ng et 叫. 2006) and tbat will e叫lance tbeir sense of agency in terms of task accomplishme肘, i.e., the self-determination dimension of empowerment. As a result, their job satisfaction will be promoted (Spector
,
1986). According to the social exchange theory (8Iau,
1964), employees will be affectively connected with their supervisors and display extra-role behaviors with reciprocation when perceiving empowered. As employees perceive that their work is laden with meaning,
responsibility, and knowledge of the actual results, a lower rate of absenteeism on the pa此 of employees will come as a result (Hackn1an and Oldham, 1975). In addition to the meaningfulness and self-determination experienced at work,
employees' possession of work-related competence and influence on strategic, administrative,or operational outcomes wiU result in greater intrinsic motivation and less negative behaviors at work. Given its motivational underpinnings
, empowerment
serves as a mechanism through which LMX quality and locus of control affect the work-related outcomes. 8ased on the aforementioned, this study proposes the fourth and fifth sets of hypothesesH4a: Psychological empowerment mediates the relationship between
u.在有(and employees' job satisfaction.
H4b: Psychological empowerment mediates the relationship between LMX and employees' ajJective commitment.
H4c: Psychological empowerment mediates the relationship between LMX and employe缸 ,intention to leave.
H5a: Psychological empowerment mediates the relationship between employees' locus of control and job sati!>.,戶ction.
H5b: Psychological empowerment mediates the relationship between employees' locus of control and ajJective commitment.
H5c: Psychological empowerment mediates the relationship between employees' locus of control and intention to leave.
86
3.1. Sample
Effects ofLeader-Member Exchange and Lo(叫 ofContro/ on Job Auitudes The Mediation of Psych%gica/ Empowerment
3. Method
Participants in this study included 316 R&D engineers from high-tech companies in Taiwan. Among them, 38 were from the integrated circuits industry, 128 企omthe PCIPeriphera1s industry, 72 from the te1ecommunication industry
,
35 from the optoe1ectronics industry, 27 from the precision machinery indust哼" and 16 the biotechno10gy industry. The R&D environment comprises a number of different departments to deve10p hardware and software productsQuestionnaires and stamped self-addressed envelopes were mailed directly to 500 R&D engineers. A cover letter attached to each questionnaire described the objectives of the survey in general terms and assured respondents of
confidentiality as well as the voluntary nature of participation in the surve
y.
Of these, 316 valid copies were obtained, yielding the response rate of 63%.Participants were primarily male (76%) and sing1e (63%)
, with the college degree
(90%), and in age between 30 and 40 years (51 %). Nearly three qua巾rsof the participants (74%) had less than 5 years of work experience
,
and over half of them were employed in the PC/Peripherals (41 %) and telecommunication (23%) industries3.2. Measures
To follow 8rislin's (1986) recommendation of ensuring accuracy and
conceptual equiva1ence in both Chinese and English versions
,
all questionnaire items are translated and back-translated by bilingual native speakers of both 1anguages3.2.1. Leader-Member Exchange
This study adopts eleven items of LMX (α= 0.92) developed by Liden and
Maslyn (1998). A sample item:
“
1 like my supervisor very much as a person." A 5-point rating scale is used to evaluate emp1oyees' perception ofthe LMX quality.ChiαoDaMαnα'gemenl Review的1.32 No. 2, 2012 87
A higher score indicates a better relationship between the participant and the supervlsor.
3.2.2. Locus of control
This study adopts sixteen items (α = 0.83) from the questionnaire developed by Spector (1988) to measure the construct of work locus of control (locus of control). A sample item for intemals is
“
A job is what you make of it",
while a sample item for extemals is“
Getting the job you want is mostly a matter of luck" A 5-point rating scale is used to evaluate employees' locus of control. A higher score indicates that the participant was an intemal,
while a lower score indicates an extemal3.2.3. Psychological Empowerment
This study adopts twelve items of psychological empowerrnent from the questionnaire developed by Spreitzer (1995) (α = 0.90). Sample items for each of the four dimensions of empowerrnent 的 “My job activities are personally meaning臼 1 to me" (meaning)
,“
1 have considerable opportunity for independence and freedom in how [ do my job" (self-deterrnination),“
1 am self-assured about my capability to perforrn my work" (competence),
and “I have a great deal of control over what happens in my department" (impact). A higher score indicates a greater level of psychological empowerment perceived by the participant3.2.4. Job Satisfaction
This study adopts three items of job satisfaction (α = 0.92) developed by Cammann et al. (仆1983). A s翎ampleitem i昀s
with their job." A 5-po叫in削1t rating scale is used to evaluate employees' job satisfaction. A higher score indicates greater participant's job satisfaction
3.2.5. Affective Commitment
This study adopts six items ofaffective commitment (α= 0.88) developed by Eisenberger et al. (2001). A sample item is “Working at the organization has a great deal of personal meaning to me." A 5-point rating scale is used to evaluate
88 Ejj告cts01 Leader-Member Exchange and Locus 0/ Control on Job Attitudes The Mediation o/Psychological Empowermenl
employees' affective commitment. A higher score indicates a greater level of participant's affective commitment.
3.2.6. Intention to Leave
This study adopts three Ïtems (a = 0.82) developed by Landau and Hammer (1986) to measure employees' intention to leave for this study. A sample item is
“
I am seriou向 thinking about quitting my job." A 5-point 叫ing scale is used to evaluate employees' intention to leave the organization. A higher score indicates more likelihood of the participant intending to leave the organization.3.3.
Data AnalysisThis study conducts the two-step procedure involving confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (Anderson and Gerbing
,
1988).To test the hypothesized mediating role of psychological empowerme訓,this study first assesses the following conditions for mediation: (a) the independent variable
relates to the mediator variable, (b) the independent variable relates to the dependent variable, (c) the mediator relates to the dependent variable, and (d) the independent variable must have no e缸ect on the dependent variable when the mediator is held constant (“11 mediation) or become significantly smaller (partial mediation) (Baron and Kenny, 1986).
Data with listwise de1etion of missing values used for the LISREL analysis results in a final sample size of 316. Overall measurement of model fit is assessed
w仙 fourindices.the X2 statistics
,
the comparative fit index (CFI,
Bentler,
1990),
the goodness-of-fit index (GFI
,
Jöreskog and Sörbom,
1988),
and root meansquare error of approximation (RMSEA
,
Brown and Cudeck,
1993)4.
Results4.1.
Correlations and Confirmatory Factor Analysis of LatentVariables
Chiao Da Management Re叫ewVol. 32 No. 2, 2012 89
Pertaining to the measurement model, we examined the distinctiveness of LMX, locus of control, psychological empowerment, job satisfaction, affective comrnitment, and intention to leave, drawing on the methods suggested by researchers (Farh et 瓜, 2007; Wang et 此, 2005). We compared the fit of eight nested models ranging from a single-factor model to the hypothesized six-factor model (see table 2). The six-factor model adequately fit the data, (X2 = 895.58, df
=
346, p < 0.01; CFI=
O.帥, GFI= 0
.82, RMSEA=
0.07), meeting the criteria suggested by scholars (cf. Bentler,
1990; Brown and Cudeck,
1993; Jöreskog and Sörbom, 1988), and the results indicated that the six-factor model yielded a more adequate overall fit than did the other models. Henc巴, the results demonstrated that the six variables were independent constructsTable 1
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations Analysis
Variables M SD 2 3 4 5 6
1. Ll\I血 3.8 0.6 [0.92] 2. Locus of control 2.7 0.4 0.20 [0.83]
3. Empowennent 3.1 0.8 0.14 0.14 [0.90] 4. Job satisfaction 3.6 0.7 。 40 。 28 0.27"" [0.92]
5. Commitment 3.4 0.6 。 38 。22 0.31" 0.69" [0.88] 6. Intention to leave 2.7 0.9 -0.29 -0.29 0.22" -0.54" -0.49" [0.82] Note: N = 316. Figures in parentheses are a reliabilities
-pp<<0O0O5l,
4.2.
Structural Equation ModelingFigure 1 presents the path coefficient estimates for the hypothesized model.
The results show that LMX significantly positively affects employees' psychological empowerment 伊=0.15
,
p < 0.05),
supporting Hl. The result also indicate that the intemal locus of control relates positively to employees' psychological empowerment(j3
= 0.38, p < 0.01). Specifically,
employees with an intemal locus of control have greater psychological empowerment, supporting H290 Ejlects of Leader-Member Exchange and Locus of Control on Job Alliludes
The Mediation o{ Psychological Empowerment
The results also show that employees' psychological empowerment positive\y
affects both job satisfaction 伊=0.54, P < 0.01) and affective commitment 伊=
0.71, P < 0.01), supporting H3a and 3b. Further, psychological empowerment has
a significantly negative effect on employees' intention to leave (ß = -0.27, P <
0.01), supporting H3c.
Table 2
Comparison of Measurement Models
Model Factor χ2 df
A
.
l
CFI GFI RMSEABaseline 6 factors 895.58 346 0.89 0.82 0.07
model
Model 1 factors: LMX a且d 986.46 351 90.88~~ 0.86 0.81 0.09
empowerrnent were combined into 1 factor
Model2 factors: LOC and 1,038.13 351 142.55'" 0.81 0.77 0.10
empowerrnent were combined into 1 factor
Model3 5 factors: JS and AC 992.74 351 97.16'" 0.86 0.82 0.09
were combined into 1 factor
Model4 5 factors: JS and 1,106.90 351 21 1.3 2叫 0.79 0.73 0.11
intention to leave were combined into 1 factor
Model5 factors: AC and 1,086.99 351 191.41'" 0.80 0.75 0.10
intention to leave were combined into 1 factor
Model6 4 factors: LOC, 1,294.21 355 398.63'" 0.69 0.59 0.14
empowerrnent, and LMX were combined into 1 factor
Model 7 4 factors 時, AC, and 1.237.75 355 342.17'" 0.71 0.61 0.14
intention to leave were combined into 1 factor
Model8 1 factors: AIl variables 1,787.43 361 891.85 0.57 0.45 O. t 7
were combined into 1
factor
Note: L恥血=Leader-member exchange; LOC = locus of control; empowerrnent = psychological
empowerrnent; JS = job satisfaction; AC = affective commitment
Chiao Da Managemenl Review 均1.32 No. 2. 2012 91
The conditions of mediation are assessed by the hypothesized model (cf. Aryee and Chen, 2006, p.797; Prussia and Kinicki, 1996, p.192). First, both LMX quality and locus of control correlate significantly with the mediator of empowerment (Table 1). Second
,
correlation coefficients indicate that LMX quality and locus of control relate significantly to all three outcome variables (Tablel). The third condition is also satisfied with the result that empowerrnent correlates significantly with the work outcomes (Tablel). To evaluate the fourth condition of mediation,
the fit of the fully mediated model is compared to that of two partially mediated models that depict three direct paths from both LMX and locus of control to the three outcome variables. Both partially mediated models of LMX (!:!.i= 944.70, df= 351,p < 0.01; CFI=
0.87, GFI=
O.肘, RMSEA=
0.06) and locus of control (t1l
=
927.俑,df= 351, P < 0.01; CFI=
O.肘, GFI=
O.侶,叫 SEA
=
0.06) fit better than the fully mediated model (t1l
=
975.39,
df=
354,
p < 0.01; CFI
=
O.肘, GFI=
O. 凹,RMSEA=
0.07), based on the changes in the chi-square value, t1l
= 30.69 (p < 0.01) and t1l = 48.31 (p < 0.01), respectivelyFigure 1 presents the LISREL estimates for the hypothesized paths. As shown in that figure, psychological empowerment fully mediates the relationships between LMX quality and job satisfaction as well as affective commitment, and partially mediates the relationship between LMX quality and intention to leave, thus yielding support for H4a, 4b, and 4c. Likewis巴,psychological empowerrnent fully mediates the relationship between loclIs of control and affective commitme肘, and partially mediates the relationships between locus of control and job satisfaction as well as intention to leave, supporting H缸,蹈,and5c
Figure 1
Estimated Path Coefficients of the Hypothesized Model
• p < 0.05; "p < 0.01
Intention to Leave 司
92 Effects of Leader-Member Exchange and Locus ofControl on Job Attitudes The Med,叫的nofPs)叫ologicalEmpowerment
5. Discussion
The study confirrns that LMX affects employees' psychological empowerrnent. As Gomez and Rosen (200 1) argue
,
supervisors tend to categorize their subordinates into the in-group or out-group based on their mutual relationship. The in-group members often possess more organizational resources and support from their supervisors than those in the out-group. Employees tend to change their job attitudes and behaviors to reciprocate managerial support when they feel that their needs and demands are met by supervisors (Shore et al., 2006). Such an open and supportive environment wilI increase employees' psychological empowerrnent. Empowerrnent is a critical premise for the enhancement of organizational effectiveness in the highly interdependent context (Chen et a止,2007). Chen et al., (2007) also argue that when the quality of LMX is high, subordinates attain an alignment of personal goals and organizational goals (meaning), perforrn their task autonomously (self-deterrnination), experience success inherent in task chalIenges (competence)
,
and finalIy have perception of personal inf1uence and responsibility (impact)Prior research confirrns a positive association between LMX and subordinates' involvement in decision-making
,
task variety,
and self-worth (Lidenet al.
,
2000). Elkins and Keller (2003) contend that leader-member interrelationship affects employees' job attitudes and outcomes in the highly autonomous and independent R&D context. This study,
in line with these arguments,
verifies the significant effect of LMX on R&D employees' psychological empowerrnent. Leaders as resource alIocators wilI grant more resources and power to those whom have better interrelationship with.Subordinates wilI thus develop greater identification with and commitment to the leader and organization. As a result
,
the social bonding shared by supervisors and subordinates is crucial to maintain high quality LMX in organizations.Locus of control relates to a variety of cognitive
,
affective,
behavioral,
and physiological outcomes (Aubé et al.,
2007; Ng et al.,
2006; Chiu et al.,
2005; Spector et al., 2002). This study confirrns that an intemal locus of control positively affects employees' psychological empowerrnent. Previous studies showChiao Da Management Review Vol. 32 No. 2. 2012 93
that people with an intemal locus of control are rnore likely to feel capable of
taking charge in their work and having an influence on their work environment (Spreitzer, 1995; Spector et al., 2002; Boone et al., 2005). The intrinsic motivation theory proposes that individuals' intrinsic rnotivation is contingent on
their psychological need for self-deterrnination and cornpetence (Deci and Ryan,
1980). As firrn believers with their cornpetence in maintaining control over their jobs, intemals demonstrate stronger need for self-deterrnination and cornpetence
than extemals (Ng et 戚, 2006). In terrns of delegating authori旬, supervisors can ernpower intemal-oriented subordinates to prornote their competence by leaving the decisions of work strategies and schedules to the subordinates. This approach satisfies ernployees' need for self-deterrnination and provides thern with a sense of empowerrnent.
Regarding the outcorne variables on the pa此 of ernployees at work, the underlying psychological process is hardly understood. This study confirrns that
psychological ernpowerrnent affects R&D ernployees' job satisfaction
,
affective comrnitment,
and intention to leave. Previous studies show that autonomy is a rnajor factor of job satisfaction and positive adjustment to work (Hackman and Oldharn, 1975; Spector et al., 2002). Further, perceived autonorny andparticipation at work relate positively to ernployee job satisfaction and other criteria of well-being (Spector, 1986). Avolio et al. (2004) report that ernployees,
when feeling ernpowered, are rnore likely to dernonstrate extra-role behaviors,
and have rnore affective cornrnitrnent toward organizations. The findings in this study agree with these conclusions frorn the prior research
As for the rnediating e仟ect of psychological ernpowe口nent, Aryee and Chen (2006) also suggest that psychological ernpowerrnent plays a rnediating role between LMX and work outcornes. A better exchange relationship between
supervisors and subordinates increases the perceived level of rneaningfulness and responsibility that subordinates experience frorn work. This helps subordinates acquire a greater degree of job satisfaction and affective cornmitrnent
,
and reducetheir intention to leave. The R&D departrnent is quite unique and greatly ernpowered cornpared to their counterpart departrnents in organizations According to Elkins and Keller (2003)
,
the R&D personnel are provided with94 EjJects of Leader-Member Exchange and Locus ofControl on 10b Attitudes
The Mediation of Psychological Empowerment
challenging tasks (Liden and Graen, 1980), task-related resources (Graen and
Scandura, 1987), recognition (Graen and Cashman, 1975), supports from leaders
for risk-taking (Graen and Cashman, 1975), and supervisor advocacy (Duchon, Green, and Taber, 1986) to facilitate their creativity and innovation (Amabile, 1988; Mumford and Gustafson, 1988). Due to the fact that the R&D personnel are inherently equipped with great autonomy to conduct tasks, the LMX quality is found to have a direct effect on their inclination to stay in organizations
,
apart from through the mediation of psychological empowemlentln addition, psychological empowe口nent partially mediates the
re\ationships between locus of control and job satisfaction as well as intention to leave. The job characteristics model proposes that core job characteristics affect
individuals' intrinsic motivation and work outcomes (Hackman and Oldham
,
1975). Perceiving greater likelihood of obtaini月 desirablework outcomes than
extemals, intemals tend to have more intrinsic motivation at work, higher
involvement in the task, and greater engagement in developmental activities as an investment in their work future (Ng et 瓜, 2006). Accordingly, dissatisfied intemals are more likely to quit a dissatisfying job when rewards are not granted
and personal goals are not reached (Spector
,
1982). This study confmns that locusof contro\ relates positively to job-re\ated affective reactions. ln line with previous findings (Chiu et al., 2005; Ng et al., 2006), the R&D engineers with an intemal locus of control have greater job satisfaction and lower inclination to quit their job in the present study. The study also confirms that psychological empowerment
fully mediates the relationship between employees' locus of control and a証ective
commitment. Liden et al. (2000) argue that empowerment contributes to
employees' attachment, loyalty, and identification with the organization through
reciprocation. Employees with intemal locus of control will retum the favor to
organizations with greater dedication and efforts when they perceive themselves
being provided with opportunities of participation
,
reifying the dimensions of meam月,self-determination, competence, and impact connoted by empowermentln addition
,
the R&D job in the high-tech industry is well known for itsChiao Da Managemenl Re叫的ν的 1.32 No. 2, 2012 95
from the job is worthwhile. Moreover, employees' perception of psychological empowerment might be less embedded owing to the fact that nearly three quarters of the participants in this study are junior R&D engineers with experience less than 5 years. Therefore
,
the locus of control has a direct effect on their job satisfaction and intention to leave, apa此 from through the mediation of psychological empowerment.5.
1.
Practical ImplicationsSeveral managerial implications from the findings are helpful for leaders to adopt different strategies for empowering employees. The present study confirms the direct effect ofLMX on employees' intention to leave. Leaders must endeavor to establish mutual trust and respect in organizations. They should be cautious with the issue of faimess and avoiding categorizing employees into in-group or out-group members because different treatment among them will result in resentment of employees and force them to leave the organization
1n addition
,
this study verifies that intemals demonstrate greater job satisfaction and lower intention to leave than extemals. The R&D jobs are characterized by a tremendous amount of inspiration and perspiration. Hence,
a well-designed reward system to attain employees' job satisfaction is critical to attract brilliant talents to stay in organizations. Organizations can also set up mentonng, training, and development programs to enhance the competence and self-e伍cacyfor those with extemal locus of control. With this acti凹,they will try their best to get greater control at work with the support from leaders and colleagues. Furthermore, the issue of employee recruitment and selection deserves more attention for organizations. Selecting people with the appropriate personality甘aits will ensure organizations the greatest fit among employees, tasks, and
orgamzatlOns
5.2.
LimitationsThe findings of this study are subject to several limitations. 1n the first
instance, 的 is study adopts a cross-sectional design, making the causal
96 瓦fJectsoJ Leader-Member Exchange and Locus oJControl on Job Attitudes
The Mediation oJ Psychological Empowerment
longitudinal studies. The main effects of LMX and locus of control on
empowerment
,
whicb are confirmed by earlier researcb,
bowever show partial support of the causal direction of the relationships found in the current study. Secondly,
the constructs of LMX,
locus of control,
psychological empoweηne肘,and work outcomes are measured with data collected from a single source of self-report questionnaires. Even though the factor analysis confirms that constructs are distinctive from each other
,
the problem of comrnon method variance still needs to be considered when interpreting the results. Finally,
the generalization of the findings might be limited due to the uniqueness of the sample and work context in this study. Further research on employees in other industries may be necessary in order to confirm these fmdings.5.3.
ResearchDi
rectionsThis study provides several suggestions for future research. Leadership
accounts for a lot of variance in employees' work-related behaviors and organizational effectÌveness. Future research may explore different leadership styles to broaden and emich our knowledge of leadership. In addition, investigations can also be conducted with subjects from different fields for extensive applications of the result. This study is conducted in a cross-sectional fashion, but the re1ationship between employees and supervisors is a dynamic
process. Other contingency or contextual factors may also formulate the
relationship development. Therefo時,缸ture longitudina1 sωdies may enrich our
understanding of leadership dynamics in organizations. Finally
,
future research on cross-national comparison is needed to provide a more comprehensive perspective in the relevant investigation.6.
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