自我概念、社會支持對職業選擇意向之研究

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(1)國立交通大學經營管理研究所. 博士論文 No.144. 自我概念、社會支持對職業選擇意向之研究 A Study on the Influence of Self-concept and Social Support on Occupational Choice Intention. 研究生：陳金足指導教授：胡均立教授中華民國一○一年三月.

(2) 自我概念、社會支持對職業選擇意向之研究 A Study on the Influence of Self-concept and Social Support on Occupational Choice Intention. 研究生：陳金足. Student: Chin-Tsu Chen. 指導教授：胡均立. Advisor : Jin-Li Hu. 國立交通大學經營管理研究所博士論文. A Dissertation Submitted to Institute of Business and Management College of Management National Chiao Tung University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Business and Management March 2012 Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China. 中華民國一○一年三月.

(3) 自我概念、社會支持對職業選擇意向之研究研究生：陳金足. 指導教授：胡均立教授國立交通大學經營管理研究所博士班. 中文摘要當今企業紛紛提高對求職者的學歷與專業要求，而大學畢業的社會新鮮人，在面對求職門檻提高、競爭者日益增多的壓力之下，大學生就學期間的學習成果是否能符合企業界的需求，並非在畢業後才由職場競爭力來斷定，而是在學期間即須對自我專業能力的養成，有具體的瞭解與認識，並隨時充實專業知能；透過家人親友、師長與同儕間的互動，增進自我概念的提升，並具備應有的專業能力，以確立未來職業選擇之方向。本研究主要目的在探討大學生自我概念、社會支持、學業成就與職業選擇意向的影響關係，依據文獻與相關研究變數之關聯性，而建立本研究之架構，並以台灣地區大學生為研究對象進行問卷調查，回收之有效問卷為 1406份。資料回收完成經統計檢定，利用線性結構方程模式以及多群體分析進行研究，結果顯示：由自我概念各因素之現況與差異分析發現自我概念各因素的重要程度，以父母關係在學生心中的重要程度最高；在社會支持各因素之現況與差異分析顯示，社會支持各因素的重視程度，則以同儕在大學生心中的重要程度最高。此外，社會支持對學業成就具有正向之直接影響。自我概念對職業選擇意向具有正向之直接影響。自我概念與社會支持透過學業成就的中介效果，對於職業選擇意向研究結果皆不顯著。利用多群體分析得到：學業成就在自我概念與社會支持對職業選擇意圖的干擾效果上，無顯著差異。本研究依據研究分析結果，適時提供給高等教育機構，強化大學職涯教育的改善，並提供高等教育機構在調整體制、提升教學規劃、增進學生職場認知、以及培養大學生提升未來職業選擇與就業能力之參考。. 關鍵詞：自我概念、社會支持、學業成就、職業選擇意向、中介效果、干擾效果. i.

(4) A Study on the Influence of Self-concept and Social Support on Occupational Choice Intention Student：Chin-Tsu Chen. Advisor：Dr. Jin-Li Hu. Institute of Business and Management National Chiao Tung University. ABSTRACT As enterprises have raised the requirements on the educational background and professional degree of job seekers, new graduates are facing raised employment requirements and ever increasing competitors, while whether their academic performance can meet the requirements of enterprises is no longer determined by their workplace competitiveness after the graduation. Rather, they need to develop a concrete understanding of cultivating professional competence, actively enrich their professional competence during school, enhance their self-concept through interactions with families, friends, teachers, and peers, and acquire the required academic performance to establish their future career options. The main pur pos eoft hi ss t udyi st oi nve s t i g a t et hec or r e l a t i ona mongc ol l e ges t ude nt s ’s e l f -concept, social support, academic performance, and occupational choice intention. The research framework was established based on literature review and the correlation among research variables. This study conducted a questionnaire survey on college students in Taiwan, and retrieved 1,406 effective samples. The data were analyzed with statistical analysis using Amos. Linear structural equation models and multi-group analysis were also used for analysis. Analysis on the factors of self-concept and their differences found that, the importance level of relationship with parents was rated the highest by the students. Analysis on the factors of social supports and their differences showed that, relationship with peers has the highest rating. Moreover, social support has a positive and direct effect on academic performance. Self-concept has positive and direct effects on occupational choice intention. Self-concept and social support have significant effects on occupational choice intention through the mediating effect of academic performance. The multi-group analysis showed that academic performance. ii.

(5) does not have a significant intervention effect on self-concept or social support on occupational choice intention. The research findings can serve as references for higher education institutions to improve career education in colleges, and for adjustments of e duc a t i ona ls y s t e msi nor de rt oi mpr ovee duc a t i ona lpl a nni ng ,i nc r e a s es t ude nt s ’wor kp l a c e cognition, and cultivate their workplace competence for future career choices.. Keywords: self-concept, social support, academic performance, occupational choice intention, mediating effect, moderating effect. iii.

(6) 誌謝個人經歷職場九年工作之後，深感榮幸有機會重返校園進修，邁向進階的學術研究之途。回首過去三年的博士研究生涯充滿了挑戰與甘苦，其中的考驗超越個人過去所有淺薄的人生經歷。由於自身是大學講師，使得追求博士學位似乎成為不得不為之的職涯規劃。回想剛入學時，讓我最無法適應的是要兼顧專職工作，同時還要準備課業與報告，心情有如沉浸三溫暖般，儘管如此卻沒有因此而放棄，因為有最堅強的後盾，賜予我最大的支持與鼓勵。博士學位得以順利完成，首先要感謝最敬愛的師長們，特別是恩師胡均立教授的指導，從博一開始不斷耳提面命，提醒學生以發表國際期刊為課題，由於胡老師在研究方向的指引與對於投稿論文鉅細靡遺的指教，使得博士生涯中耐心地等待與歷經國際期刊投稿的修改、審稿程序，現今皆已能逆來順受。修業期間除了胡老師的細心教誨外，也得到許多老師的專業薰陶，特別是楊千教授奠定了我的研究方法基礎，使得論文撰寫上，增強了方法應用的嚴謹性，也感謝曾芳代教授，經由曾老師在人力資源理論的專業指導，強化了我的知識領域；而口試委員林師模教授、陳文華教授及劉孟奇教授三位老師的學問淵博，口試時給予我多元且精闢的見解，提升了學位論文的完整性，讓我對學術研究有更深入的領悟，真是獲益良多，特別在此致上我最深的謝意。特別感謝我的學長老師陳春富教授，從博士班入學後的諄諄教誨，長期以來給予無數的激勵與啟發，即使是課餘時間也不吝賜教，嚴厲督促我的課業與為人處事，猶如嚴師慈父，讓我有今日的成長。此外，還要感謝我的好同事王成財教授，不辭辛勞地在統計部分提供建議與協助，使得博士班進修過程得以順利圓滿地劃下句點，誠摯地感謝師長與先進們的愛載。最後，感謝家人的支持與鼓勵，尤其是媽媽、大哥、小哥和姊姊，多年來對於我的支持、鼓勵與愛護，您們的支持是我最大的動力，有您們的關愛，才能讓我毫無後顧之憂的完成學位，不斷地向前邁進；此刻心裡最想說的是：「親愛的爸爸，我完成博士學位了!」特此告慰父親大人在天之靈。謹以此論文獻給我最摯愛的家人，感謝您們。. 陳金足謹誌民國 101 年 3 月桃園. iv.

(7) TABLE OF CONTENTS 中文摘要---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. i. ABSTRACT-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. ii. 誌謝---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. iv. TABLE OF CONTENTS--------------------------------------------------------------------------. v. List of Tables----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. vii. List of Figures---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. ix. Chapter 1. Introduction-----------------------------------------------------------------------------. 1. 1.1 Research Background---------------------------------------------------------------------. 1. 1.2 Research Objectives-----------------------------------------------------------------------. 3. 1.3 Research Flow-----------------------------------------------------------------------------. 4. Chapter 2. Literature Review----------------------------------------------------------------------. 5. 2.1 Self-concept---------------------------------------------------------------------------------. 5. 2.2 Academic Achievement-------------------------------------------------------------------. 8. 2.3 Social Support------------------------------------------------------------------------------. 11. 2.4 Occupational Choice Intention-----------------------------------------------------------. 14. 2.5 Theoretical Background-------------------------------------------------------------------. 17. Chapter 3. Research Method-----------------------------------------------------------------------. 23. 3.1 Research Framework and Hypotheses --------------------------------------------------. 23. 3.2 Research Hypotheses----------------------------------------------------------------------. 23. 3.3 Operational Definitions of Variables----------------------------------------------------. 25. 3.4 Measurement Tools------------------------------------------------------------------------. 27. 3.5 Research Subjects and Data Collection-------------------------------------------------. 29. 3.6 Analysis Method---------------------------------------------------------------------------. 29. Chapter 4. Data Analysis---------------------------------------------------------------------------. 32. 4.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis on the Self-concept Scale----------------------------. 32. 4.2 Confirmatory Factor Analysis on the Social Support Scale--------------------------. 37. 4.3 Confirmatory Factor Analysis on the Academic Achievement Scale--------------. 42. v.

(8) 4.4 Confirmatory Factor Analysis on the Occupational Choice Intention Scale------. 44. Chapter 5. Structural Equation Model Estimation---------------------------------------------. 48. 5.1 Data Description---------------------------------------------------------------------------. 48. 5.2 T- test and One-way ANOVA-----------------------------------------------------------. 49. 5.3 Current Status and the Differences among the Self-concept and Social Support-. 53. 5.4 Path Analysis on the Overall Model of Self-concept, Social Support, Academic Achievement, and Occupational Choice Intention------------------------------------. 56. 5.5 Verification of the SEM Hypotheses----------------------------------------------------. 58. 5.6 Analysis and Discussion of the Effect of Various Paths------------------------------. 62. Chapter 6. Conclusion and Discussion-----------------------------------------------------------. 65. 6.1 Conclusion----------------------------------------------------------------------------------. 65. 6.2 Implication for Practice-------------------------------------------------------------------. 68. 6.3 Limitation and Future Research----------------------------------------------------------. 70. References-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. 72. vi.

(9) List of Tables Table 1.1. The number of freshmen enrolled and admission rate of universities in Taiwan in 2001-2010-----------------------------------------------------------------. 2. Distribution of skewness and kurtosis of the observed variables of the self-concept scale---------------------------------------------------------------------. 33. Table 4.2. Assessment on the self-concept scale violation of estimation------------------. 34. Table 4.3. Goodness-of-fit test on the self-concept scale model----------------------------. 35. Table 4.4. Summary of the reliability and convergent validity of the self-concept scale------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 36. Table 4.5. Correlation coefficient matrix and square root of the average variance extracted of the self-concept scale-------------------------------------------------- 37. Table 4.6. Distribution of the skewness and kurtosis of the observed variables of the social support scale-------------------------------------------------------------------. 38. Table 4.7. Assessment on the social support scale violation of estimation----------------. 39. Table 4.8. Goodness-of-fit test on the social support scale model--------------------------. 40. Table 4.9. Summary of the reliability and convergent validity of the social support scale------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41. Table 4.1. Table 4.10 Correlation coefficient matrix and square root of the average variance extracted of the social support scale------------------------------------------------ 42 Table 4.11 Distribution of skewness and kurtosis of observed variables of academic achievement scale--------------------------------------------------------------------- 42 Table 4.12 Assessment on the academic achievement scale violation of estimation------ 43 Table 4.13 Summary table on the reliability and convergent validity of the academic achievement scale--------------------------------------------------------------------- 44 Table 4.14 Distribution of the skewness and kurtosis of the observed variables of the occupational choice intention scale------------------------------------------------- 45 Table 4.15 Assessment on the occupational choice intention scale violation of estimation------------------------------------------------------------------------------. 45. Table 4.16 Goodness-of-fit test on the occupational choice intention scale model-------. 46. Table 4.17 Summary of the reliability and convergent validity of the occupational choice intention scale----------------------------------------------------------------. 47. Table 5.1. Analysis on demographic variables------------------------------------------------. 49. Table 5.2. T-test on different genders on the constructs-------------------------------------. 50. Table 5.3. Analysis of variance on school type------------------------------------------------ 51. Table 5.4. T-test on part-time job experience on different constructs----------------------. vii. 52.

(10) Table 5.5. Analysis of variance on monthly family income---------------------------------. 53. Table 5.6. Summary of current status of self-concept----------------------------------------. 54. Table 5.7. Summary of ANOVA on self-concept factors------------------------------------. 54. Table 5.8. Summary of LSD post hoc comparison on self-concept factors---------------. 55. Table 5.9. Summary of current status of social support--------------------------------------. 55. Table 5.10 Summary of ANOVA on social support factors---------------------------------- 56 Table 5.11 Summary of LSD post hoc comparison on social support factors-------------. 56. Table 5.12 Summary of the goodness-of-fit indices of the overall model------------------ 58 Table 5.13 Comparison of the research hypotheses and the empirical results-------------. 60. Table 5.14 Summary of the Sobel Test---------------------------------------------------------- 61 Table 5.15 Test of significance of the moderating effect of path coefficients of academic achievement--------------------------------------------------------------- 62 Table 5.16 Summary of the analysis on the effect of various paths in this study---------- 64. viii.

(11) List of Figures Figure 1.1 Research flow chart--------------------------------------------------------------------. 4. Figure 2.1 Hierarchical model of self-concept--------------------------------------------------. 7. Figure 2.2 Sociopsychological model of educational achievement of Wisconsin school-. 11. Figure 3.1 Research framework-------------------------------------------------------------------. 23. Figure 3.2 Research framework –moderating effect-------------------------------------------. 24. Figure 5.1 Overall model of self-concept, social support, academic achievement, and occupational choice intention and path diagram of standardized parameters and correlation--------------------------------------------------------------------------. 61. Figure 5.2 Path diagram of self-concept, social support, academic achievement and occupational choice intention---------------------------------------------------------. 63. ix.

(12) Chapter 1. Introduction. 1.1 Research Background Learning opportunities in university education can cultivate and enhance s t ude nt s ’ self-competitiveness. Besides academic study, college life is also the preparation stage for students to choose the career paths. Students need to utilize the career resources and assistances provided by universities, deliberate over their short-term and long-term plans, learn about various industries and jobs, and cultivate the professional skills and competencies required for their desired occupations, in order to stay on the right career paths. On the other hand, university education should cultivate the professional knowledge and skills needed by students in order to help them making the right career choices. The total number of universities in Taiwan increased from 30 in the 1980s to 164 in 2010, and the number of students was as high as 1,021,636. In 2005, the admission rate was 89.08%, and a total of 88,920 students were enrolled. In 2010, the admission rate was as high as 94.87%, and 71,165 students were enrolled (Department of Statistics website, http://www.edu.tw/files/site_content/B0013/overview09.xls). The data above indicate that although the admission rate increased, the total number of enrolled students decreased (see Table 1.1). The main reason is the declining birthrate. In 2008, the birthrate in Taiwan was 8.64%, which is the lowest rate in the world (Ministry of Education, Geographic Science Center Newsletter website, http://gis.tcgs.tc.edu.tw/news/200910/#d69). As a result, at present, nearly all students in Taiwan have an opportunity to study in universities. The professional training and cultivation have a significant influence on students’choices of occupations and career paths.. 1.

(13) Table 1.1 The number of freshmen enrolled and admission rate of universities in Taiwan in 2001-2010 Academic year. 2001. 2002. 2003. 2004. 2005. 2006. 2007. 2008. 2009. 2010. Number of students enrolled by Joint 77,450 78,562 87,059 88,939 88,991 88,920 86,652 81,409 76,434 71,165 Entrance Exam (department required test) Admission rate of Joint Entrance Exam 61.35% 80.41% 83.22% 87.05% 89.08% 90.93% 96.28% 97.10% 97.14% 94.87% (department required test). With the rapid expansion of higher education systems in various countries around the world, more and more students have the opportunity to receive higher education, and both the quality and quantity of higher education have changed dramatically. Specifically, university education has evolved from the elite education in the past to the universal education at present. The popularization of universities has mitigated the competitiveness of the Joint Entrance Exams. However, such change in the higher educational system has f a i l e dt oi mpr ove s t ud e nt s ’a c h i e ve me nts. University students are expected to the intellectuals of the society, and possess the abilities and traits to meet the needs of the workplace. As enterprises are raising t her e qui r e me nt sf orj obs e e ke r s ’e duc a t i ona la nd professional backgrounds, and there is increasingly competition in the job market, the employment preparation for fresh graduates does not start after the graduation, but while the students are still in school. The students need to cultivate their professional knowledge and skills, enhance self-concept through interaction with families, friends, teachers and peers, in order to prepare for the career choices. Eisenberger et al. (1986) suggested that, from the perspective of social support theory, if individuals obtain support in the society to which they belong, their trust in organizations will be increased to further improve the relationship quality between the individuals and system-related groups. Therefore, when individuals suggest that the 2.

(14) system to which they belong is reliable, cares about them and supports them, they will exhibit good behavior and performance, and be more willing to actively share knowledge with other people. Consequently, when facing peer competition, teacher encouragement, parental expectations, and pressure from future employment, students will look forward to their academic and future achievements. The academic performance of students represents their learning outcomes and educational effectiveness of the university. This study investigated the correlation among uni ve r s i t ys t ude nt s ’self-concept, social support, academic achievements, and occupational choice intentions. The findings are expected to serve as a reference to future teaching-related studies.. 1.2 Research Objectives After entering the higher education system, university students will perceive the importance of self-concept, social support, and academic achievement on occupational choice intentions. Based on the research background and motivations mentioned above, this study aimed to investigate the influences of self-concept, social support and academic achievement of university students on their occupational choice intentions. The research objectives are described as follows: 1. To investigate the influence ofuni ve r s i t ys t ude nt s ’self-concept on academic achievement and occupational choice intention. 2. To i nve s t i g a t et hei nf l ue nc eofuni ve r s i t ys t ude nt s ’s oc i a ls uppor ton a c a de mi c achievement and occupational choice intention. 3. To i nve s t i g a t et hei nf l ue nc eofuni ve r s i t ys t ude nt s ’a c a de mi ca c hi e ve me nt s and occupational choice intentions. 4. To investigate how self-concept and social support affect occupational choice intention through the mediating influence of academic achievement. 3.

(15) 1.3 Research Flow Identify Research Objective. Literature Review. Establish Research Scope and Framework. Questionnaire Design. Data Collection and Analysis. SEM Model Analysis. Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Verification of the Model of the Influence of Self-concept, Social Support and Academic Achievement on Occupational Choice Intention. Descriptive Statistics Analysis. Discussion and Conclusion. Figure 1.1 Research flow chart. 4.

(16) Chapter 2. Literature Review. In order to i nve s t i g a t et hec o r r e l a t i ona monguni ve r s i t ys t ude nt s ’self-concept, social support, academic achievements, and occupational choice intentions, this study first conducted literature review on related theories for each variable.. 2.1 Self-concept Shavelson et al. (1976) argued that self-c onc e pti sa ni ndi vi dua l ’ si nt e g r a t i onof e xpe r i e nc e si nt hee nvi r onme ntwi t h ot he rpe opl e ’ sa ppr a i s a l s ,s e l f -explanation, and self-attribution to develop subjective self-opinion or self-image, namely, the method for an individual to view himself/herself, a method for an individual to describe himself/herself. Self-c onc e pti sa ni ndi vi dua l ’ sove r a l le va l ua t i onononeself. It is the responding method determined by an individual according to his/her perception, understanding and evaluation of the environment. Individuals can develop good adaptability based on self-perception, an understanding of people and objects, and the establishment of interpersonal and interactive relationships with the surrounding environment. Therefore, self-concept becomes the basis of life adjustment. A person with a clear, explicit, and aggressive self-concept can understand and please oneself, and maintain a good contact with the environment, accurately perceive the situation of the environment, evaluate the difficulty of matters, and effectively overcome and solve problems (Dusek, 1996). Plucker and Stocking (2001) suggested that the basic meaning of self-concept is an i ndi vi dua l ’ sopi ni onors e r i e sofopi ni onsononeself. Self-concept is the key factor for studying human behavior, and an important core for the construction of personality. To university students who are at the stage of seeking self-identification, self-concept is a particularly important aspect for their development. Zhang and Li (2010) suggested that the self-concept of university students develops a relatively stable level. 5.

(17) during the college period. If university students can have a clear understanding of themselves, it will be significantly beneficial to their learning and career planning. LaBenne and Greene (1969) suggested that, in a broad sense, self-concept r e pr e s e nt sa ni ndi vi dua l ’ ss e l f -pe r c e pt i on.I nana r r ow s e ns e ,i tr e f e r st oa ni ndi vi dua l ’ s identification, attitude, and affection for his/her ability, appearance, social acceptance, emotion, and skill. Franken (1988) indicated that self-concept is not inherent, but is gradually developed after an individual is exposed to external environments and experiences through complicated interactions. Moreover, self-concept has a significant i nf l ue nc eona ni ndi vi dua l ’ smot i va t i ona nda c t i on.Tor e duc et heg a pbe t we e nt her e a l self and ideal self, an individual will trigger one ’ sstrong motivation and action to realize one ’ sinner objectives and ideas. Moreover, self-concept can be developed through learning in the self-development process. Therefore, it is the aggregation of various attitudes and thoughts of an individual toward oneself and the environment (Canfield & Wells, 1994). Pintrich and Schunk (2002) found that individuals’self-concept is correlated with their action motivation. People with a high self-concept usually possess a higher achievement motivation, and are more willing to engage in learning. However, the learning motivation and ambition of those with a low self-concept are lower. Shavelson et al. (1976) used a hierarchical model structure to explain self-concept, and divided it into an academic self-concept and a non-academic self-concept, as shown in Figure 2.1. The former is divided into English, history, mathematics, and science, while the latter is divided into social self-concept, emotional self-concept, and physical self-concept. Social self-concept is subdivided into peers and significant others. Emotional self-concept is subdivided into particular emotional states. Physical self-concept is subdivided into two aspects, physical ability and physical appearance.. 6.

(18) Figure 2.1 Hierarchical model of self-concept (Shavelson et al. 1976). Shavelson et al. (1976) suggested that the existence of self-concept is similar to the intellectual ability hierarchical model proposed by Verson (1950), and that diversified phenomena will be developed owing to the difference in domains. Moreover, similar domains will aggregate to form the self-concept of a higher hierarchy. Therefore, i ndi vi dua l s ’ove r a l ls e l f -concept is a complicated combination. Shavelson et al. (1976) s ugg e s t e dt ha tbe c a us ea dol e s c e nc ei st heke ys t a geofde ve l opme nt ,s t ude nt s ’personal experiences and the objects they interact with are the main causes for the differentiation of self-concept. Because school life is a very important source of experiences for adolescents and learning is the center of life during this period, the structure of self-concept can be divided from general self-concept into academic and non-academic self-concept. Academic self-concept is divided into the self-concept of language and mathematics according to the differences in subjects. Non-academic self-concept is divided into physical, emotional, and social self-concept. Moreover, these self-concept are further divided into aspects such as peers, parents, appearance and physical ability, according to the differences in life experiences and objects individuals interact with. In recent years, considerable research has explored the role of self-concept in the academic domain (Linnenbrink, 2006; Marsh et al., 2003), demonstrating its importance with respect to self-regulated learning, achievement motivation, course enrollment, and career-related decision-making (Schutz & Pekrun, 2007; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2008; 7.

(19) Goetz et al.,2010) .Pi nt r i c ha ndSc hunk( 2002)f oundt ha ta ni ndi vi dua l ’ ss e l f -concept is significantly correlated with his/her motivation. People with a high self-concept usually possess a higher motivation and are more willing to engage in learning. People with a low self-concept usually possess a lower motivation and ambition. Strein (1993) indicated that self-concept is more than the reflection of the many behaviors and performances of an individual. A positive self-concept is also an important method for developing behavior that meets social expectations because a positive self-c onc e ptc a ni mpr ovei ndi vi dua l s ’ behavior and performance in various aspects. Consequently, whether students ’ self-concept is positive significantly affects their learning motivations. The cultivation of students’pos i t i vea nda gg r e s s i ves e l f -concept is not only beneficial to improving learning motivation, but also indirectly affects academic achievements.. 2.2 Academic Achievement For the pursuit of higher competitiveness, the social trend and influence of education has been widely concerned, and academic achievements are highly valued. Academic achievements refer to the ability to achieve a certain level of knowledge or skill through the learning process. Brown, Campione, and Day (1981) suggested that the definition of academic achievement is the knowledge, understanding, and skill obtained through the educational experiences of f or ma lc ur r i c ul aa nd t e a c hi ng de s i g n,or i ndi vi dua l s ’ obtainment of certain information and mastery of skills through specific teaching. Academic achievement refers to certain information, knowledge or skills obtained by individuals through learning. Test scores and teacher assessments are commonly used to evaluate academic achievement. Because teacher assessments usually involve the teachers’s ubj e c t i veopi ni ons and impressions, the reliability and validity of the scores are lower than test scores. As a result, if there is a need to assess s t ude nt s ’a c a de mi c performances, it is more objective to use test scores as an indicator (Yu, 1994). Some 8.

(20) studies have shown that the academic achievements of students are often assessed based on intellectual ability factors and the scores of standardized exams in the past in order to investigate the correlation between intellectual ability and academic achievement (Cokley et al., 2001). At present, teachers can use various achievement assessments, including paper-based tests, performance assessments, actual assessments, portfolio assessments, a nddy na mi ca s s e s s me nt ,t oe va l ua t es t ude nt s ’l e a r ni ngout c ome s .I na ddi t i on,s t ude nt s ’ performances in various fields can be used as the assessment criteria for learning outcomes. Therefore, academic achievement is the most objective and representative indicator. Some s t udi e s ha ve i ndi c a t e dt ha t ma ny f a c t or sa f f e c ts t ude nt s ’a c a de mi c achievements, such as gender, birth order, family socioeconomic status (Powell, 1990; Santrock, 2008) ,i ndi vi dua l s ’pe r s ona lt r a i t s ,s e l f -concept, motivation, emotions, learning attitude, interest, value and experience, expectations and intellectual ability, social skills, family environment, social level, and the stimuli of people, matters and objects that students are exposed to (Henderson, 1994). Among these factors, family environment, personality traits and social skills are the most important ones affecting the academic achievements of adolescent students (Garzarell et al., 1993). To summarize the above, the f a c t or sa f f e c t i ngs t ude nt s ’a c a de mi ca c hi e ve me nt sc a n beg e ne r a l l ydi vi de di nt o:1) individual aspects: such as health condition, personality traits, intellectual ability, aptitude, motivation, attribution, learning attitude, learning strategy, and environmental adaptation; 2) family aspects: such as socioeconomic background, parenting style and attitude, and family atmosphere; 3) school aspects: such as the school environment, teache r s ’ characteristics and expectations, and teaching content; and 4) social aspects: such as peer relationships, social structure and social resources. Among these factors, most scholars have suggested that factors in the individual aspect have the most significant influence on s t ude nt s ’a c a de mi ca c hi e ve me nt s( Ya nge ta l., 1973; Yang, 1987). Among the factors in 9.

(21) the individual aspect, intellectual ability is a very important factor affecting academic achievement, and other non-intellectual ability-related psychological or personal traits are also key factors for predicting academic achievements. The socio-psychological model of educational achievement of the Wisconsin model proposed by Blau and Duncan (1967) (Sewell & Hauser, 1980), as shown in Figure 2.2, explains the influence of family socioeconomic status on educational achievement. The model shows that the indicators of family socioeconomic status include the level of the f a t he r ’ se duc a t i on,t hel e ve loft hemot he r ’ se duc a t i on,t heoc c upa t i ona nds t a t usoft he father, and the income of both parents. The research results showed that socioeconomic s t a t usdi r e c t l yori ndi r e c t l ya f f e c t sot he rpe opl e ’ se xpe c t a t i ons ,a ndt he s ee xpe c t a t i ons have a significant influence on s t ude nt s ’educational achievements or occupational achievements. Therefore, as shown in the socio-psychological model of educational achievement, family socioeconomic status can directly affect s t ude nt s ’educational a c hi e ve me nt s ;a ndt heme di a t i ngf a c t orofot he r s ’e xpe c t a t i onsc a ni ndi r e c t l ya f f e c t s t ude nt s ’educational achievements. St ude nt s ’educational achievements may be affected by numerous direct or indirect factors, and factors such as family socioeconomic status, material conditions, parenting style, language, learning environments, parental care and expectations for children, all can affect s t ude nt s ’educational opportunities.. 10.

(22) Figure 2.2 Sociopsychological model of educational achievement of Wisconsin school (Sewell & Hauser, 1980: 72). 2.3 Social Support The concept of social support was first proposed by Caplan (1974). It refers to the reliance between individuals or between individuals and groups. Hobfoll (2002) suggested that social support provides individuals with actual assistance through social relationships, emphasizing that individuals have a sense of belonging to important social groups and believe that they are being loved and cared. Tolsdorf (1976) defined social support as the provision of a certain form of behavior or action for purposes of the persons concerned or for the needs of a certain context. Lin et al. (1986) defined social support as the relevant factors or powers that can help individuals to survive in a social environment. Moreover, it is also the assistance from social networks, close partners, and friends in the social groups perceived by individuals to obtain emotional responses. The support for actual life and emotional support are both very important. Social support is r e g a r de da sapr e s s ur ebuf f e rt or e duc ei ndi vi dua lpr e s s ur et hr oug hot he rpe opl e ’ ss uppor t or interactions with social networks (Glynn et al., 1999; Antonovsky, 1974). Cohen and 11.

(23) Lakey (2006) indicated that the functions of social support are to enhance pressure-coping performance through the supportive actions of others, and obtain supportive recognition a nd a s s e s s me ntt or e duc ei ndi vi dua l s ’ne g a t i vee xpl a na tions about stressful events, further reducing the stressful effects caused by negative evaluations. Caplan (1974) argued t ha ts oc i a ls uppor ti sa ni ndi vi dua l ’ sf or ma lori nf or ma lobt a i nme ntofe mot i ona l , perceptional, and material support from a certain member, group, or environment, and this support enables the individual to feel that he/she can rely on someone or a group to overcome difficulties and stress. Cobb (1976) suggested that social support is an i ndi vi dua l ’ sobt a i nme ntofame s s a g e ,whi c hma ke shim/her feel that he/she belongs to a certain group and is cared about. Norbeck et al. (1981) indicated that social support is composed of various aspects, and is individuals’s ubj e c t i vef e e l i ngofbe i ngs uppor t e d. Individuals can obtain love and care from families, friends, and significant others, as well as their recognition and approval for their behaviors or values through interpersonal exchanges. Moreover, the y will provide others with symbolic or substantial assistance. Individuals can obtain assistance from interpersonal networks or social support (Colvin et al., 2002). Shumaker and Brownell (1984) suggested that social support has both direct and buffering effects. The direct effects come from meeting an i ndi vi dua l ’ sne e dsf oras e ns e of security, social contact and a sense of belonging, and further maintaining an i ndi vi dua l ’ ss e l f -value and esteem to directly increase health and the sense of happiness. The buffering effects come from providing the information and resources required for coping with pressure. In other words, social support does not directly affect pressure or health, but it mitigates the relationship between them. In terms of the direct effects, Sarason et al. ( 1983)f oundt ha tt e a c he r s ’s uppor tf ors t ude nt sha sadi r e c ti nf l ue nc eont he s t ude nt s ’s a t i s f a c t i onwi t hs c hool s .I ndi vi dua l s ’achievements vary with social support as well. Swindle (1983) indicated that if individuals can obtain more social support, there 12.

(24) will be fewer physical and psychological factors affecting their lives. Therefore, social support is deemed to have buffering effects. There is a wide range of the origins of social support, such as families, teachers, friends or classmates. Individuals may deal with life incidents more flexibly and maintain a better physical and psychological status by using the support to reduce the overreaction to pressure events (Swindle, 1983). When individuals are satisfied with the social support, they may develop a specific sense of belonging and a sense of security (Thoits, 1985). On the contrary, when individuals are dissatisfied with the social support, they may easily encounter troubles and may even fall into crises. Social support is the possibility to obtain assistance relationships and quality of assistance relationships (Leavy, 1983). As individuals encounter difficulties in a new environment, obtaining assistance from other people is beneficial to the adaptation to the new environment (Tsang, 2001). Kahn and Quinn (1976) indicated that there are three forms of social support, namely aid, affection, and affirmation. The social support from aid is the provision of relevant information and assistance in emergencies. The social support from affection is the provision of emotional support based on the relationship between the support providers and the support seekers. Thes oc i a ls uppor tf r om a f f i r ma t i on i st hes uppor tpr ovi de r s ’be l i e fi nt hes uppor t s e e ke r s ’a bi l i t ya ndf a i t ht ode a lwi t hpr e s s ur ea ndt hepr ovi s i onofa f f i r ma t i on( Kr a i me r et al., 2001). Copland et al. (1975) pointed out t ha ti ndi vi dua l s ’or i g i nsofs oc i a ls uppor t include organizations, colleagues, supervisors, and friends. Among those, organizations, supervisors and families are the main social support providers for overseas staff (Aycan, 1997). Henderson et al. (1994) indicated that the performance of children whose parents frequently interact with schools is usually better. The time that parents spend on their c hi l dr e n ’ se duc a t i ona l s oha sa ni mpor t a nteffect ont hec hi l dr e n’ sl e a r ni nga t t i t ude ,a n di t certainly affects their academic performance. Based on the above, the origins of social support are the generalized social network as well as the significant others in the 13.

(25) individual aspect. Various supports can be provided for individuals at different levels. Cassel (1976) suggested that the social support from primary groups includes families, relatives, and friends. Moreover, these origins of social support are crucial to an individual. Soc i a ls uppor tc a nme e ti ndi vi dua l s ’s ubs t a nt i a lne e dsa ndpr ovi det he m wi t he ne r gya nd resources. Therefore, it is regarded as the key resource in the context of pressure (Hobfoll & Shirom, 2000). However, the definitions concerning the content included in social support are inconsistent. Therefore, the aspects of social support are usually analyzed and explained through different methods (e.g. emotional and substantial support), different origins (e.g. spouse, families and friends), different aspects, and different forms. As the main purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of social support on university s t ude nt s ’a c a de mi ca c hi e ve me nt s ,t hi ss t udypr obe di nt ot het hr e ema i nor i g i nsofs oc i a l support for university students, namely, families and relatives, teachers, and classmates.. 2.4 Occupational Choice Intention University student are at the stage of exploration, and the main task during this period is to explore career choices in order to gain an understanding of the workplaces and choose the direction of future career path. Occupational choice intention refers to fresh g r a dua t e s ’de c i s i on-making attitudes or behaviors in deciding their preferences before entering the job market. In terms of groups and society, occupational choice intention refers to whether the integration and allocation of human resources in society are appropriate. Therefore, occupational choice intention is not only the decision-making pr oc e s st ha tme e t si ndi vi dua l s ’a pt i t ude s ,a bi l i t i e sa ndi nt e r e s t s ,buta l s otheir behavioral responses of self-growth and adaptation for the changes in the overall social, political, and economical environment. Holland (1985) suggested that individual career choice is t hee xt e ns i onofpe r s ona lt r a i t s .Thepr oc e s sofc a r e e rc hoi c ec a nr e f l e c ti ndi vi dua l s ’ personal traits. If the fitness between personal traits and work environment is higher, 14.

(26) i ndi vi dua l s ’j obs a t i s f a c t i onwi l lbehi g he ra ndt he ywi l lnote a s i l yc ha nget he i rj obs . Career choice is the response exhibited when individuals face important career decision-making by combining their understanding with their judgment of education and external factors (Fouad et al., 2006). Herr and Cramer (1992) indicated that university students are at the key stage of career development, and have to face many major decisions concerning their future development, such as seeking jobs, thinking about life value, and getting married. The results of a national survey on the career needs of university students in the United States showed that more than 100,000 university students have a sense of uncertainty, and they need the instruction and assistance concerning career and education decision-making from schools (Luzzo, 1991). Moreover, a study indicated that university students are still uncertain about their future career direction at school, and they encounter barriers when making career choices, suggesting that it is important for schools to help students understand their personal traits and self-interests to make future career choices (Betz, 1994). Previous studies have suggested that the main factors affecting occupational choice intentions can be divided into gender, academic achievements, professional skills and abilities, working experience, level of education of the parents, occupations of the parents, and the expectations of the parents. Farmer (1995) indicated that with the change of time and the efforts made by school education, the influence of gender on career choice has been reduced. However, it still has an influence. Hollender (1971) pointed out that the f a c t or sa f f e c t i nga dol e s c e nt s ’c a r e e rc hoi c e sa r er e l e va ntt ot he i ra c a demic performances at school. Sharf (1997) suggested that when facing career choices, interest is the most important factor. Chen (2000) conducted a study on the employment intentions of vocational high school students, and found that internship or work-study experience has an influence on career choices. In addition, 48.3% of the students suggested that it has a positive effect, but only 5.7% of them suggested that it has a negative effect. Monica 15.

(27) (2002) argued t ha ta dol e s c e nt s ’s t a bi l i t yoff ut ur ec hoi c eis significantly correlated with t heoc c upa t i onsoft he i rpa r e nt s ,a ndt ha tt he i rpa r e nt s ’oc c upa t i onsa nds oc i a ls t a t us particularly have significant effects on their career choices. Otto (2000) studied senior high school students in the graduating class, and found that most adolescents share the same idea as their parents in terms of future career choice. Therefore, parents have an influence on the career choices of adolescents. Occupational choice intention is also known as the career development tendency. Thec onc e ptor i g i na t e sf r om c a r e e rc hoi c e .I tr e f e r st oi ndi vi dua l s ’d e c i s i on-making attitudes to seek their preferences for various types of jobs after trying for a long period of time in various aspects, such as self-development, learning, family and jobs, and after accumulating experiences (Chang, 2000). Schein (1996) first proposed the concept of occupational choice intention. The studies from 1978 to 1990 suggested that individuals ’ occupational choice intention can be divided into the following types, including: 1. Technical/functional competence: People with this tendency are inspired by the jobs they engage in, and what they care about is their professional field, including the techniques, functions and the job content, instead of the management process. If they are assigned to other fields, their satisfaction will decrease and they will try to return to the fields of their expertise. 2. General managerial competence: People with this tendency like rapid promotions. They have the three competitive advantages, namely analytical ability (the ability to confirm, analyze, and solve problems in situations with uncertainty or insufficient intelligence, the ability to stabilize emotions (the ability to pull themselves together when encountering emotional or interpersonal crises or the ability to bear heavy responsibilities without collapsing), and interpersonal ability (the ability to affect, supervise, manipulate and control personnel of various levels in an organization). 3. Security/stability: People with this tendency attach importance to long-term job safety 16.

(28) and stability; hence, they tend to form a close relationship with an organization and become organization members. They are willing to accept the arrangement of an organization. To these people, it is usually more important to keep a stable and guaranteed job than to aggressively seek other promising jobs. Other people with this tendency intend to develop only in a specific area; hence, they only change jobs within this area. 4. Entrepreneurial creativity: People with this tendency enjoy taking adventures and trying new projects. They have a strong desire to create or establish their own empire, in order to prove themselves. 5. Autonomy/independence: People with this tendency care about the feeling of independence and autonomy, and they prefer making decisions on their own instead of relying on others. As these people concurrently possess strong technical/functional competence, they often decide to act as consultants, work independently or run smaller enterprises on their own. Schein (1996) suggested that occupational choice intention is developed at the early s t a g eofa ni ndi vi dua l ’ sde ve l opme nt .I tg ui de sa ndc ont r ol st heva l ueoft hee nt i r el i f eof a ggr e s s i vet hi nki ng .Thi sf a c t orwi l lde t e r mi nea ni ndi vi dua l ’ scareer choice. Five main f a c t or sa f f e c t i ngpe opl e ’ soc c upa t i ona lc hoi c ei nt e nt i onsare listed below: 1) technical intentions; 2) management intentions; 3) security and stability intentions; 4) creativity intentions; and 5) independence and autonomy intentions. This study used these five f a c t or sa st heba s i st oi nve s t i g a t euni ve r s i t ys t ude nt s ’oc c upa t i ona lc hoi c ei nt e nt i ons .. 2.5 Theoretical Background 2.5.1 Self-concept and Academic Achievement According to Chien et al. (2008), the relationship between self-concept and academic achievements can be generally divided into three models, namely the skill 17.

(29) development model, the self-enhancement model, and the reciprocal effects model. The s c hol a r ss uppor t i ng t he s ki l lde ve l opme ntmode ls ugg e s tt ha ts t ude nt s ’a c a demic performance or performance in academic fields will affect their self-concept (Pottebaum et al., 1986). The self-enhancement model investigates the effects of self-concept on academic achievement (Wigfield & Karpathian, 1991). The reciprocal effect model (REM), supported by most scholars, suggests that self-concept and academic achievement have a reciprocal cause and influence (Guay et al., 2003). Self-concept is molded by ability and performance, and it is also an important variable affecting learning achievement (Pajares & Schunk, 2001). DeFraine et al. (2007) proposed that the causal direction of academic self-concept and achievement will vary with age. The academic self-concept of younger students is more likely to be influenced by school performance. By the time when students enter higher grades, their academic self-concept and achievement are more likely to be influenced by each other. Marsh and Köller (2004) proposed the Unification Model to examine the reciprocal causality between academic performance and self-concept. The research results showed that the self-concept in a field can improve academic achievement; however, the self-concept in different fields can mildly inhibit academic achievement. Goldberg and Cor n e l l( 1998)f oundt ha ts t ude nt s ’i ntrinsic motivation and self-concept have a significant and correlated influence on academic achievement. Goldberg and Cornell developed a feedback model among the academic achievements, self-concept, and motivation of students. When students have an aggressive self-opinion, t he yc a nobt a i nhi g he ra c hi e ve me nt s .Whe ns t ude nt s ’a c hi e ve me nt sa r ehi g he r ,t h e i r self-concept and motivation can increase. As a result, these variables form a feedback l oop.Pu r ke y( 1970)i ndi c a t e dt ha ta ni ndi vi dua l ’ sr ol ei nagr oup,regarding whether he/she is valued, accepted and easily approached, possesses leadership, as well as his/her achievements in class and academic performance from the perspective of other students, 18.

(30) tends to leave a scar that may not easily disappear in his/her self-image. To students, the overall self-concept has a significant influence on academic achievement. Academic achievements and self-concept have a reciprocal cause and effect. The smoothness of a c a de mi cl e a r ni ngc a ni nc r e a s es t ude nt s ’s e l f -esteem and self-confidence. Moreover, the feedback influence can lead to a better performance in various aspects. It can be inferred that self-concept is closely related to academic achievement. Marsh and Yeung (1997) f oundt ha ts t ude nt s ’a c a de mi cself-concept will affect their future academic achievements, and academic achievements will also significantly affect their academic self-concept. Therefore, self-concept and academic achievement affect each other.. 2.5.2 Social Support and Academic Achievement Previous studies have both suggested that social support is a very important variable with many positive effects. Widoff (1999) conducted a study on the learning experiences of 397 college and graduate school students, and found the origins of support for adult students to be peers, friends and families. Among these, peers and friends provide encouragement or substantial assistance and play the role of helping students relieve their emotions. Students could provide instructions on learning, suggestions on course selection, and advising professor selection. Numerous studies have indicated that social support is related to academic achievement among university students. The study by Roman et al. (2008) presents an initial step into the analysis of the influence of self-esteem, peer and teacher expectations, as well as the effects of family support on academic achievement through learning approaches. Data were gathered from 553 university students from different departments of a Spanish university. The analysis, through structural equation modeling, provided support for the positive effects of self-esteem and family support in university students' learning and achievement. Peer and teacher expectations increased both surface learning 19.

(31) and applied effort. Hymel et al. (1996) provided evidence that peer support may also c ont r i but et oc hi l dr e n’ sa c hi e ve me ntbe c a us ei tha sa pr of ound i nf l ue nc e on t he i r day-to-day behavior at school. Frentz et al. (1991) showed that students who are rejected by their peers have lower academic scores than do more popular students. Another study found that the perceptions of supportive relations with teachers are related to greater academic achievement, higher levels of student engagement, less problematic behaviors, and more positive peer relations (Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Skinner et al., 2008).. 2.5.3 Academic Achievement and Occupational Choice Intention To many university students, seeking a good job is the main objective after graduation. A good education provides students with more employment opportunities and c ul t i va t e ss t ude nt s ’a bi l i t i e st o ma kes i g ni f i c a ntc ont r i but i onst ot he i rc hos e nf i e l ds (Chuang et al., 2009). According to the Wisconsin model developed by Sewell and Hauser (1980), for students with better academic performances, the expectations from parents and teachers are higher, and this increases their education and career ambitions. The better the academic performance is, the higher the ambitions for education and career will be. One factor forc a r e e ra nde duc a t i ona lpl a nni ngt ha tma yove r l a pwi t hapr obl e m’ s s e ve r i t yi sas t ude nt ’ se duc a t i on a la nd oc c upa t i ona la s pi r a t i on l e ve l . This issue is expressed in the sense that the higher a student's aspirations are, the more challenging it will be to successfully attain those aspired careers and education levels (Raviv et al., 2000; She f f i e l de ta l . ,2004) .The r e f or e ,s t ude nt s ’e xpe c t a t i onsa nda mbi t i onsf orc a r e e ra r e correlated with their education levels.. 2.5.4 Self-concept, Social Support and Occupational Choice Intention According to Betz (1994), Super's theory of career development is the notion of self-concept. Self-concept is basically how individuals picture themselves (Super, 1957). 20.

(32) The development of the career stage is the development and practice of self-concept. It is de f i ne da s“ t he constellation of self attributes considered by the individual to be voc a t i ona l l yr e l e va nt ”( Supe r ,1 9 63,p.20) .Super (1963) suggested that individuals attempt to implement their self-concept through career choices. Given the breadth of Super's construct (Betz, 1994), one's self-concept may also include beliefs about one's image, personal appearance, and physical attractiveness. Perceptions of one's image may influence beliefs about which occupations will allow for the implementation of the self-concept. Super (1980) proposed the career development model, which emphasizes the continuity of career development. The career development of an individual is divided into five stages: growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and declination. Context-associated adaptive behaviors will be developed at each stage. The growth stage is the initial stage of career development, where individuals start to develop a self-concept through the recognition from and interactions with significant others, such as parents and friends. With the increase in age, individuals gradually take into account the meaning of interests and abilities through the actual participation in various events and the accumulation of experiences. The exploration stage includes adolescence and adulthood, and it covers the college period. Individuals explore themselves, roles, and careers through schools, work experiences and interpersonal interactions, in order to further develop a sense of preference for career and gradually realize their objectives. The establishment stage is the stage to confirm stability. After individuals find an appropriate career, they tend to become stabilized in the career, start to approve of it and seek for progress in it, in order to establish a professional status and increase the opportunity for promotion. A consistent conclusion of the correlation between social support and occupational choice intention has not been reached in relevant studies. The amount of received social 21.

(33) support (e.g., information/advice, encouragement, feedback from worksite supervisors, school staff, mentoring) during the school years is vital to students, as decisions concerning educational and career pursuits may appear daunting and confusing (Hoy & Miskel, 2001). The career development theory proposed by Super (1994) provides a conceptual framework to investigate the process of human career development. According to the theory, the college period is the late period of the exploration stage of career development, and the main task is to increase self-perception through various exploratory activities to further clarify the direction of career development, establish specific career planning, develop self-concept and occupational concept, and prepare for entry into the job market. However, the abilities and personality traits required by each career are different, allowing individuals to engage in different careers and allowing people with different personalities to engage in the same career. During the college period, because students are planning to enter the job market, they will attach more importance to the challenges of the real society, and further intend to fulfill their individual self-concept, establish accurate occupational concepts, cultivate an accurate working attitude, and increase their specific understanding of the working world.. 22.

(34) Chapter 3. Research Method. The main objective of this study was to investigate the correlation among self-concept, social support, academic achievement and occupational choice intention, and to propose a hypothetical model where self-concept and social support are the independent variables, academic achievement is the mediating and moderating variable, and occupational choice intention is the dependent variable. The model is expected to clarify the correlation among self-concept, social support, academic achievement, and occupational choice intention.. 3.1 Research Framework and Hypotheses Based on the research purposes and literature review, this study developed conceptual framework, as shown in Figure 3.1 and 3.2.. Self-concept. H2-1 H1-1. H4-1 Academic achievement. H1-2 Social support. H3-1. H4-2 H2-2. Figure 3.1 Research framework. 23. Occupational choice intention.

(35) Academic achievement. H5-1 Self-concept. H5-2. Occupational choice intention Social support. Figure 3.2. Research framework –moderating effect. 3.2 Research Hypotheses The hypotheses in this study were derived from theories in the literature, and follow-up data analysis verified the accuracy of these hypotheses. Based on the research purpose, literature review, and research framework, this study proposed the following hypotheses according to the relationships between the dimensions, and then conducted empirical research. H 1: Self-concept and social support have a positive influence on academic achievement. H 1-1: Self-concept has a positive influence on academic achievement. H 1-2: Social support has a positive influence on academic achievement. H 2: Self-concept and social support have a positive influence on occupational choice intention. H 2-1: Self-concept has a positive influence on occupational choice intention. H 2-2: Social support has a positive influence on occupational choice intention. 24.

(36) H 3: Academic achievement has a positive influence on occupational choice intention. H 3-1: Academic achievement has a positive influence on occupational choice intention. H 4: Self-concept and social support affect occupational choice intention through the mediating influence of academic achievement. H 4-1: Self-concept has a positive influence on occupational choice intention through the mediating influence of academic achievement. H 4-2: Social support has a positive influence on occupational choice intention through the mediating influence of academic achievement. For the overall model, it was necessary to understand whether the correlations among self-concept, social support, academic achievement, and occupational choice intention would be applicable to students in higher education institutions; thus this study further explored whether academic achievement was a moderating variable. The following research hypotheses were established: H5:. Academic achievement has a moderating effect on the positive influence of self-concept and social support on occupational choice intention.. H5-1: Academic achievement has a moderating effect on the positive influence of self-concept on occupational choice intention. H5-2: Academic achievement has a moderating effect on the positive influence of social support on occupational choice intention.. 3.3 Operational Definitions of Variables The explanations about the operational definitions of aspects in this study, such as self-concept, social support, academic achievement, and occupational choice intention are given as follows:. 25.

(37) 3.3.1 Self-concept Self-c onc e pti sa ni ndi vi dua l ’ ss um oft he pe r c e pt i on ofvarious aspects of themselves. It is a feeling or concept developed after individuals interact with other people and the environment. In includes the attitude toward physical traits, the attitude toward personality traits, the attitude toward self-competence and achievements, the attitude to accept the external world, and opinions on value systems, beliefs, and emotions (Canfield & Wells, 1994).. 3.3.2 Academic Achievement St ude nt s ’a c a de mi ca c hi e ve me ntr e f e r st ot hel e a r ni ngout c omeobt a i ne dbys t ude nt s at the end of a semester, after learning and taking assessment tests at school, namely, a c a de mi cg r a di ng .Ac a de mi ca c h i e ve me nti nt hi ss t udyr e f e r r e dt os t ude nt s ’a c a de mi c performance in the spring semester of 2011, and the average grade during college period was used as the indicator of academic achievement. The academic grading of the students in this study was divided into five levels as follows: >90 points, 80-89 points, 70-79 points, 60-69 points, and <60 points.. 3.3.3 Social Support This study defined social support as the use of emotional, instrumental, and information support to help individuals adapt well to the context of stress. In addition, it is the buffer for individuals to respond to stress. Its origins may be families, teachers or peers. In order to investigate the influence of social support, this study used the following three main aspects proposed by scholars as the measurement indicators (Sarason et al., 1983; Colvin et al., 2002). 1. Support from families: the care and support from parents, spouse, siblings, relatives, etc. 26.

(38) 2. Support from teachers: the respect, attention, assistance, and care obtained from teachers during the college period. 3. Support from classmates and friends: the mutual experience sharing, assistance, encouragement, and care between peers. A Likert 5-point scale was applied to the social support scale, and the students ticked t hec he c kboxe s( r a ng i ngf r om “ noe xpe c t a t i on”t o“ e xt r e me l yhi g he xpe c t a t i on” )me e t i ng their conditions according to the descriptions of the items. The items were given a score of 1 to 5.. 3.3.4 Occupational Choice Intention Occupational choice intention, also called career develop tendency, refers to an i ndi vi dua l ’ sde c i s i on-making attitude to seek his/her preference from various types of jobs after trying for a long period of time in various aspects, such as self-development, learning, family and job, and after accumulating experience.. 3.4 Measurement Tools Thi ss t udyus e dt he“ Que s t i onna i r eonSe l f -concept, Academic Achievement, Social Support, a ndOc c upa t i ona lc hoi c ei nt e nt i onofUni ve r s i t ySt ude nt s ”a st her e s e a r c ht ool . The questionnaire included four parts: a self-concept scale, a social support scale, an academic achievement scale, and an occupational choice intention scale. Explanations about the scales are given as follows:. 3.4.1 Self-concept Scale The self-concept scale was developed according to previous literature. Moreover, the self-concept scale for vocational school students compiled by Chen (1996) was applied to this scale. This scale is mainly applicable to vocational/senior high school students and 27.

(39) university students, and included a total of 14 aspects. After the content was amended according to the needs of this study, it included a total of 11 aspects: the self-concept of mathematical, the self-concept of language, the self-concept of specialized subjects, the self-concept of emotion, the self-concept of physical ability, the self-concept of friends, the self-concept of parent-child relationships, the self-concept of teacher-student relationships, the self-concept of problem-solving, the self-concept of morality and integrity, and the self-concept of career planning. The measurement was based on a Likert 5-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). A higher total score indicates a higher self-concept.. 3.4.2 Social Support Scale The social support scale was compiled based on previous studies on social support a ndChe ng ’ s( 2000)s e l f -e di t e d“ Que s t i onna i r eonMa r r i e dGr a dua t eSt ude nt s ’Ne e df or Social Suppor t . ”Thi ss t udydi v i de dt heor i g i nsofs oc i a ls uppor ti nt ot hr e eor i g i ns : support from teachers, support from classmates and friends, and support from families. After the questionnaire was amended, there were a total of 20 items. The measurement was based on a Likert 5-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). A higher total score indicates greater social support.. 3.4.3 Academic Achievement Scale The academic achievement scale was developed by the researcher according to variousa s s e s s me ntme t hodsc ur r e n t l yus e dt oa s s e s ss t ude nt s ’l e a r ni ngout c ome s ,a ndi t was used as a method for assessing academic achievement. Three items were established, including: 1) the average academic score during the college period; 2) the average academic score of the last semester; 3) the ranking in class during the last semester. St ude n t s ’a c a de mi cgr a de swe r edi vi de di nt of i vel e ve l sf ora s s e s s me nt . 28.

(40) 3.4.4 Occupational Choice Intention Scale The main aspects of this scale were the five types of occupational choice intention proposed by Schein (1996), including: 1) technical intention; 2) management intention; 3) safety and stability intention; 4) creativity intention; and 5) independence and autonomy intention. The measurement was based on a Likert 5-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).. 3.5 Research Subjects and Data Collection The subjects of this study were junior and senior university students in Taiwan. It was difficult to control the actual size of the population. An adequate sampling method was used to select samples according to the theoretical foundation of sampling and statistics. Sample characteristics can be used to infer the population, and the results can be used to rationally infer and explain the population. Therefore, this study used convenience sampling and selected schools as the sampling unit to select limited samples for statistical analyses. Junior and senior university students from the 2011 Spring Semester in 15 colleges across Taiwan were selected as the subjects for the questionnaire survey. A total of 1,500 questionnaires were distributed in May 2011, and 1,440 questionnaires were returned, with a return rate of 96%. After the questionnaires were encoded, there were 1,406 valid questionnaires, showing a valid return rate of 93%.. 3.6 Analysis Method This study used the statistical package software SPSS 12.0 for windows and AMOS 17.0 as the data analysis tools to analyze the valid questionnaires. SEM (structural equation modeling)was used for the analysis, because traditional statistical methods regard variables as observable data without dealing with potential variables and they assume there is no measurement error. SEM can be used to deal with unobservable 29.

(41) constructs. The analysis on the model of observable variables can be used to estimate various parameters as well as test and estimate measurement errors. Moreover, errors can be included in the analysis process and can even be used to assess the reliability and validity of the measurements (e.g., factor analysis), in order to integrate the concept of reliability into the statistical decision-making of path analysis. The following statistical analysis methods were used to test the research hypotheses:. 3.6.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis The statistical package software AMOS 17.0 was used to perform confirmatory factor analysis, test the fitness of the overall model, and confirm the reliability and validity of the research tools.. 3.6.2 Structural Equation Modeling SEM can be used to deal with the relationships of several independent variables and several dependent variables concurrently. Therefore, this study used SEM to investigate how the variables affect one another. To understand the operation of the overall model, this study used AMOS 17.0 to analyze the SEM and investigate the linear structure of each aspect. This study used SEM to test the overall SEM paths of self-concept, social support, academic achievement, and occupational choice intention, and further revise the original framework and model according to the indicators provided.. 3.6.3 Descriptive Statistical Analysis This study used descriptive statistical analysis to analyze the mean and variance of each variable. A Likert 5-point scale was applied to the questionnaire. After the data were encoded and a quantification analysis was performed, the mean and standard deviation of e a c hi t e m we r ec a l c ul a t e d.Theme a nr e pr e s e nt e dt hes ubj e c t s ’opi ni onont hei t e m. 30.

(42) Moreover, the means were used to compare subjects in different aspects. A higher mean indicates a higher level of importance attached to the item or a higher level of satisfaction with the item. Standard deviation was used as the indicator of consistency to assess s ubj e c t s ’opi ni onsont hei t e ms .As ma l l e rs t a nda r dde vi a t i oni ndicates a more consistent opinion on the item.. 31.

(43) Chapter 4. Data Analysis. Before using AMOS to perform statistical analysis, it was necessary to fully understand the characteristics of the data to ensure it conformed to the SEM hypothesis and to prevent the data from affecting the estimation of the model and the test results.. 4.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis on the Self-concept Scale As shown in Table 4.1, in terms of the skewness and kurtosis of 15 observed variables in the modified self-concept scale, the absolute value of the skewness was between 0.01 and 0.48, which was not greater than 3, the extreme value of skewness (Kline, 1998). The absolute value of kurtosis was between 0.01 and 0.48, which was less than 10, the deviation value of kurtosis (Kline, 1998). These results implied that using the estimation method of normal distribution did not significantly affect the integrity of the estimation. Therefore, this study used the method of maximum likelihood (ML) for estimating the model.. 32.

(44) Table 4.1 Distribution of skewness and kurtosis of the observed variables of the self-concept scale Observed Variables Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis X1: I am very interested in specialized subjects. X2: I can bring out my talents in specialized subjects. X3: I am willing to make an effort in specialized subjects. X4: My mood is happy most of the time. X5: When I encounter frustration, I can face it calmly. X6: My emotions are usually calm and relaxed. X7: I perform well in most physical activities. X8: I like to engage in physical activities. X9: I can easily make friends. X10: I am very satisfied with my interpersonal relationships. X11: I get along well with my parents and our relationship is very close. X12: I like my parents and I often actively shown concern over them. X13: My parents understand and respect me. X14: I am satisfied with my current career planning. X15: I am aggressively preparing for my future career plans.. 3.58. 0.78. -0.17. 0.30. 3.45. 0.75. -0.03. 0.28. 3.41. 0.75. -0.10. 0.48. 3.73. 0.82. -0.48. 0.38. 3.55. 0.76. -0.31. 0.03. 3.47. 0.80. -0.24. -0.14. 3.39. 0.90. -0.21. -0.15. 3.44 3.50. 0.96 0.80. -0.29 -0.10. -0.32 0.05. 3.46. 0.80. -0.22. 0.31. 3.80. 0.87. -0.37. -0.11. 3.64. 0.81. -0.04. -0.17. 3.66. 0.84. -0.21. -0.01. 3.08. 0.81. 0.04. 0.30. 3.38. 0.87. -0.01. 0.01. 4.1.1 Violation of Estimation Testing When comparing the overall goodness-of-fit of the model, in terms of the analysis on the individual models, it was necessary to understand whether the statistical results obtained from the model were inadequately interpreted. Inadequate interpretation is a type of violation of estimation (Huang, 2007). In general, the following violations frequently occur: 1) the existence of negative error variables or the existence of meaningless variance errors in any construction; 2) the factor loading is greater than or is close to 1 (0.95 is the threshold value); and 3) the standard error is too large. Table 4.2 is a summary table of the parameter estimation of the self-concept scale. As seen, the factor loading of self-concept was between 0.71 and 0.92, which was not. 33.