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臺灣珊瑚礁保育策略研究 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學亞太研究英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in Asia-Pacific Studies College of Social Sciences National Chengchi University, Taipei. 碩士論文 Master’s Thesis. 臺灣珊瑚礁保育策略研究 Protecting the Rainforests of the Sea A Framework to Manage the Coral Reefs of Taiwan. Student: Aleksandra Monika Manikowska Advisor: Dr. David Blundell. 中華民國 106 年 6 月 June 27th, 2017.

(2) 臺灣珊瑚礁保育策略研究 Protecting the Rainforests of the Sea A Framework to Manage the Coral Reefs of Taiwan. 研究生: Student: 愛麗絲 Aleksandra Monika Manikowska 指導教授: Advisor: 卜道 Dr. David Blundell. 國立政治大學 亞太研究英語碩士學位學程 碩士論文. A Thesis Submitted to International Master’s Program in Asia-Pacific Studies National Chengchi University, Taipei in partial fulfillment of the Requirement for the degree of Master in China Studies 中華民國 106 年 6 月 June 27th, 2017.

(3) Acknowledgements I would first like to express my deepest gratitude to my thesis advisor Dr. David Blundell ( 卜道 ) for supporting my ideas, encouraging me to probe into previously unexplored territories, and spreading his enthusiasm for this beautiful island. I would also like to thank my committee members, Drs. Jackson Hu (胡正恆) and ShihJung Hsu (徐世榮), for their input and direction. Without their active participation in my research, many of the interview opportunities would not have been secured. I would like to extend my thanks and appreciation to all the experts who were involved in my quest for answers and patiently imparted their knowledge, including: Dr. WenHung Liao (廖文弘) at the Construction and Planning Agency, Dr. Ming-Huey Wang (tibusungu 'e vayayana) at the Council of Indigenous Peoples, Drs. Ching-Ping Tang (湯京平) and Da-Wei Kuan (官大偉) at National Chengchi University, and Dr. Syaman Lamuran at National Taiwan Normal University. I would like to extend my warmest hugs to Will for his support, infectious good humour, and constant supply of coffee – the writing of this paper would have been a lot less memorable without him. Finally, I would like to express a mountain of gratitude to my parents, Edyta and Andrzej, whose unyielding curiosity and positive attitude gave me the courage to move almost nine thousand kilometres to pursue my education. Za to, że jesteście. Dla Otka, za to, że był..

(4) Abstract The majority of the coral reefs are located in the tropical oceans between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, with a particularly high concentration near the equator. The Tropic of Cancer runs through the center of Taiwan, dividing the island into tropical and subtropical climate zones in the South and North, respectively, and creating an ideal habitat for the coral reef ecosystem. Yet, there is an insufficient amount of scientific research and data regarding the status of and threats to Taiwan’s coral reefs, especially in English-language publications. There furthermore exists a lack of awareness of the need to protect the reefs and coastal resources, with the widespread mentality that ‘Taiwan is a seafood country, not an ocean country’ hindering conservation efforts. Strife at the political level, in part a result of Taiwan’s unique historical events, translate into legislative and economic priority given elsewhere. This paper thus aims to realign this information asymmetry through intensive literature reviews and interviews with key stakeholders, including governmental institutions, scholars, and members of indigenous communities. Results show that deep mistrust and miscommunication between governmental institutions and the indigenous communities complicate marine conservation efforts. Satisfying short-term dominant interests frequently comes at the expense of environmental progress, a phenomenon that does not seem to substantially change with the election cycles. Nevertheless, progress has been made through such measures as the implementation of the Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan. However, persistent issues such as improper enforcement of laws, prioritization of immediate economic gains over long-term ecological concerns, opposition from interest groups, and a lack of incentives and awareness at all levels to protect coastal regions continue to impede effective coral reef and coastal management. Overall, despite the monumental challenges set before marine conservation, the solution lies within a unified collaboration of all the stakeholders determined to protect and cultivate the many benefits of a sustainably managed coast and healthy coral reefs. Keywords: Taiwan, coral reefs, coastal management, indigenous communities, collaborative governance. i.

(5) 摘要 珊瑚礁位處熱帶海洋的赤道附近。台灣島被北回歸線分為南與北,為理想的珊 瑚礁棲息地。然而,台灣珊瑚礁的保育地位和現代威脅,特別缺乏國際出版的 科學研究和數據;加上社會缺乏保護珊瑚礁和沿海資源的必要認識,讓「台灣是 海鮮國家,而不是海洋國家」的錯誤認知持續阻礙了保育工作。因此,本文通過 文獻回顧和訪問利益相關者,來理解包括政府機構,學者和在地社區成員間的 珊瑚礁論述。結果發現,政府機構和在地社區之間的深度不信任使得海洋保護 工作複雜化,加上滿足短期利益往往犧牲環境整體資源。然而,通過實施沿海 綜合管理計劃(ICZMP)可能為解決方案,在所有利益攸關的共議合作中,確保保 育海岸和健康珊瑚礁的諸多可持續利益。. 關鍵字 :臺灣、珊瑚礁、海岸管理、在地社群、共同治理. ii.

(6) Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................... i 摘要................................................................................................................................ii List of Tables and Figures.............................................................................................. v 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Research topic ...................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Research aims and questions ............................................................................... 3 1.3. Structure for this study ........................................................................................ 4 1.4. Methodology and timeframe ............................................................................... 5 2. Overview of coral reefs in the world ......................................................................... 7 2.1. The importance of coral reefs.............................................................................. 8 2.2. Threats to coral reefs ......................................................................................... 15 2.2.1. Local threats ............................................................................................... 15 2.2.2. Global threats .............................................................................................. 21 2.3. Existing efforts to protect coral reefs ................................................................ 23 3. Summary .................................................................................................................. 31 4. Politicized reefs ........................................................................................................ 32 4.1. Coral reefs in Taiwan: threats and challenges ................................................... 33 4.2. The environment as a common-pool resource .................................................. 42 4.3. The growth of the environmental consciousness .............................................. 46 4.4. Democratization and the environment .............................................................. 53 4.5. Institutions and coastal protection ..................................................................... 61 5. Case study: Australia’s Great Barrier Reef .............................................................. 69 5.1. Management and legislature.............................................................................. 71 5.2. Local communities ............................................................................................ 74 5.3. World Heritage Site ........................................................................................... 77 5.3.1. Implications ................................................................................................ 77 5.4. Conclusion......................................................................................................... 78 6. Indigenous communities .......................................................................................... 80 6.1. Outside influence............................................................................................... 83 6.2. Tao (Yami) Orchid Island marine traditions ..................................................... 89 6.3. Challenges ......................................................................................................... 94. iii.

(7) 7. Sustainable coastal management and collaborative governance ............................. 96 7.1 Importance of coral reefs in Taiwan .................................................................. 97 7.2. Stakeholder incentives and challenges .............................................................. 99 7.3. Governance of coral reefs ............................................................................... 102 8. Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 108 9. Bibliography .......................................................................................................... 111 10. Appendices ........................................................................................................... 123. iv.

(8) List of Tables and Figures Page Number Table 1: Typology of marine management areas. 25. Table 2: Four types of goods. 43. Table 3: Five principles for the governance of environmental resources. 105. Figure 1: Major coral reef concentrations across the globe. 2. Figure 2: Number of people living near coral reefs (2007). 10. Figure 3: Live reef fish trade routes in the Southeast Asian region. 11. Figure 4: Taiwan in the global marine aquarium trade. 12. Figure 5: The movements of the world's commercial shipping fleet. 19. Figure 6: Vessel pollution. 20. Figure 7: The calcareous shell of a sea butterfly. 23. Figure 8: Tidal Zones. 26. Figure 9: Distribution of coral species. 39. Figure 10: Framework for assessing management effectiveness of protected areas 73. v.

(9) 1. Introduction 1.1 Research topic Challenges to reverse the once commonly held premise that oceans are an infinite resource, compounded with debates on jurisdiction, ownership, and subsequent responsibility and funding have complicated the process of decision-making vis-à-vis coastal-marine management. International collaboration to provide strong protections for marine environments is still in its formative phase, with just five percent of the world’s oceans secured in marine protected areas as of 2016. 1 Although there is a growing awareness of the need to establish more protected areas and marine reserves, the cumulative impact of local and global threats remains a consistent source of pressure on the vast panorama of underwater life. Coral reefs, known as the ‘rainforests of the sea’, are one of the most valuable and diverse ecosystems in the world. They occupy less than one quarter of one percent of the marine environment, yet are home to more than 25 percent of all known marine fish species.2 The reef ecosystem is a critical habitat for a variety of animal and plant species, and dependence on reef-derived resources for livelihoods and subsistence is a prevailing trend across the world. Yet, due to natural and anthropogenic disturbances, corals are rapidly deteriorating on a global scale. Although there is widespread recognition that coral reefs are severely threated, research and information regarding particular threats to particular reefs is limited, which inhibits effective reef management. Research and recognition are closely connected, and the study of coral reefs and the dissemination of scientific knowledge to both governmental bodies and the general populace is a key step in preserving these diverse ecosystems. For instance, the Great Barrier Reef (GBR), the largest reef in the world both according to area and length (348,000 km2 and 2,500 km, respectively), 3 has been and continues to be an international hub of academic focus. With over a century of intense investigations, the. 1. UN Environment Wing. Accessed 8 March 2017. http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2016/12/more-than-5-per-cent-of-worlds-oceans-nowprotected-with-more-commitments-underway-un-environment-wing/ 2 WWF, ‘Coral facts.’ Accessed 28 December 2016. http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/coasts/coral_reefs/coral_facts/ 3 Amanda Briney, 2017, ‘The World’s Largest Coral Reefs,’ ThoughtCo. Accessed 5 March 2017. https://www.thoughtco.com/the-worlds-largest-coral-reefs-1435124. 1.

(10) GBR is currently “the best-studied tropical marine ecosystem in the world”4 and has set the foundation for coral reef science. Policy support followed education and communication, aiding decision-makers and planners in creating long-term frameworks that will affect the survival of coral reefs. However, given the vast dispersal of coral reefs throughout the world, the amount of research dedicated to specific regions remains unbalanced. What is more, the general consensus that research in marine environments is more expensive than on land also hinders the acquisition of data necessary for effective coastal-marine management. Nevertheless, initiatives to inform communities, government agencies, and the general public about the existing threats to reefs and why action is needed to protect and rehabilitate them is a crucial step in reef management and conservation. As Figure 1 illustrates, most coral reefs are located in the tropical oceans between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, with a particularly high concentration near the equator. The Tropic of Cancer runs through the center of Taiwan, dividing the island into tropical and subtropical climate zones in the South and North, respectively.. Figure 1: Major coral reef concentrations across the globe, provided by the World Resources Institute, 2011.5. Taiwan, also referred to as the Republic of China, is an East Asian island approximately 180 km off the southeastern coast of mainland China. Taiwan has a coastline of circa 1,566 km and total coral reef area of 940 km2,6 with a high density of coral reefs on the southern tip and on nearby smaller islands in the west (Penghu Island). ‘Managing the Reef,’ GBRMPA. Accessed 8 March 2017. http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/managing-thereef/how-the-reefs-managed/Managing-multiple-uses/scientific-research 5 World Resources Institute, 2011. ‘Major Coral Reef regions of the World.’ Accessed 8 March 2017. http://www.wri.org/resource/major-coral-reef-regions-world 6 Summary Report for MPAs in Taiwan. Accessed 6 March 2017. http://www.reefbase.org/key_topics/pdf/Taiwan%20mpa.pdf 4. 2.

(11) and southeast (Green Island, Orchid Island) and with sporadic occurrences on the eastern and northern coastline. The current status of the reefs shows a wide range of variation depending on the region, yet there is a general trend of reef deterioration that goes in line with global trajectories.7 For this reason, seeking appropriate sustainability and protection strategies of the coral reefs should be a key objective. As such, this thesis intends to draw awareness to the situation of Taiwan’s coral reefs and aims to propose a possible framework to manage, protect, and rehabilitate them.. 1.2. Research aims and questions The World Resources Institute called the coral reefs “harbingers of change”, for their degradation offers a clear sign that humankind’s overreliance on fossil fuels is already changing Earth’s climate.8 A general consensus expanded upon later in this paper is that mitigating local threats may help ‘buy time’ for reefs until such global threats can be curbed. Thus, the significance of raising awareness of the value of coral reefs at the local scale should not be underestimated, and conservation efforts should be implemented for reefs of various proportions. As such, the main aim of this thesis is to draw awareness to the situation of Taiwan’s coral reefs and the people that rely on their resources, and subsequently to propose a possible framework to manage, protect, and rehabilitate these ecosystems. As previously mentioned, information pertaining to particular threats to particular reefs is limited, marine reserve objectives are not evenly distributed across all cases, and threats do not target all reefs to the same degree. Research on a local scale is paramount to effective reef management. Yet, Taiwan’s coral reefs remain underresearched: (i) Taiwan’s reefs are not mentioned in large publications such as Reefs at Risk, which offers an analysis of threats to the world’s coral reefs. The main discussion is focused on larger reef coverages such as the Palawan Barrier Reef in the Philippines, or on the substantial import levels of live reef food fish into Hong Kong and mainland China. Of course, for brevity purposes, such assessments must provide a general overview of the situation at hand, but this creates an information gap that needs to be filled. (ii) The political status of Taiwan may be a reason behind an unwillingness to. Chang-Feng Dai, ‘The Proposed Coral Reef Marine Protected Area Network in Taiwan.’ Accessed 6 March 2017. http://www.globalislands.net/userfiles/Taiwan_2.pdf 8 Lauretta Burke et al., 2012, Reefs at Risk Revisited: Summary for Decision Makers, Washington: World Resources Institute, p.v. 7. 3.

(12) conduct international research and collaboration schemes in the area. Furthermore, a lack of English-language publications pertaining to the topic may be another reason why the island’s reefs remain in relative academic obscurity. (iii) Comparatively speaking, reef-derived economic incentives are not as significant a driver in Taiwan’s policy-making as in other nations whose populations heavily depend on reefs for sustenance and employment. Moreover, despite attempts by the Taiwanese government to implement environmental protection laws that include safeguarding coral reefs, evidence of institutional mismanagement implies that there is a strong gap between political will and state capacity, which in turn lags any attempt at proper reef conservation. In summary, accurate research is the foundation on which effective management can be built. This paper proposes that coral reefs, sustainably managed, can be an important source of natural resources for Taiwan and generate economic value from tourism. Based on this, the main research questions can be formulated as follows: what is the current development of coral reef protection in Taiwan? What are the economic and social challenges to implementing effective coral reefs management policies? And finally, drawing on international case studies such as that of Australia’s Great Barrier Reef, what sort of framework may be applied to Taiwan?. 1.3. Structure for this study The thesis is composed of two sections. The first part provides an overview of the global current situation of coral reefs based on literature review. This includes such core information as the geographic location and size of the reefs, as well as a more qualitative enquiry into the importance of and need for continued coral reef survival. Then, an assessment of the current local and global threats as a result of anthropogenic activities is undertaken. Finally, existing management tools and frameworks to protect and sustain the coral reef ecosystems are provided. The first section thus provides a strong theoretical basis and a general overview of the status of coral reefs and global attitudes and solutions to their management, laying the foundation for section two. Section two is the crux of the thesis, dealing specifically with the case of Taiwan. First, the threats and challenges to Taiwan’s coral reefs are investigated to gain a more current awareness of the issue at hand. Then, a theoretical discussion on the concept of the environment as a common-pool resource is provided. Common-pool resources such as coral reefs have a high level of subtractability of use and difficulty of exclusion,. 4.

(13) making it a very difficult resource to manage, especially given the pluralistic incentives at play. Indeed, when analyzing complex ecologies like coral reef ecosystems, the human role is inevitably intertwined in and affecting the environment. As such, a historical overview of the development of the Taiwanese environmental consciousness is elucidated; this is especially important given the 20th century political transformations, final democratization and subsequent emergence of environmental institutions. The case study of Australia’s Great Barrier Reef is put forth as an example of multi-level, cross-sector collaboration of marine management. Taiwan’s own indigenous communities are analyzed in section six, including the Dawu’s extensive traditional ecological knowledge and marine heritage. Finally, coastal management and collaborative governance is considered for the case of Taiwan, including stakeholder incentives and proposed solutions and management frameworks for the island’s coral reefs. Through the paper, various interviews with governmental agencies, academics, and indigenous peoples are added to contribute to a more holistic insight into the subject matter.. 1.4. Methodology and timeframe Literature review underpins this paper’s data collection framework, and primary research methods in the form of interviews are used to cross reference information. Interviews may supplement practical information that has been omitted by academic publications, enhancing the paper’s accuracy and adding a ‘human dimension’ to the proffered framework. The author has interviewed three groups: (1) governmental agencies, including members of the Planning and Construction Agency and the Council of Indigenous Peoples in Taipei City; (2) scholars; and (3) indigenous peoples. More information is provided in Appendix 3. The reasoning behind this selection is threefold; firstly, it is important to examine what the policy-making and funding mechanisms are for the institutions and how they interact within the whole governmental body. Simply put, it is necessary to see how autonomous the agencies are in decision-making and goalprioritization. From this, institutional strengths and weaknesses may be drawn, which will aid the study in finding a suitable and manageable framework for the protection of coral reefs in Taiwan. Moreover, interviewing the Council of Indigenous Peoples serves as a key link between the rhetoric of the government and the local peoples. It is. 5.

(14) beneficial to gauge the main issues the Council and by extension the indigenes concern themselves with, and to assert the priority of environmental issues vis-à-vis other aims. Secondly, it is crucial to investigate how policies reach down to the people. The Tao have been chosen as a representative of a local group due to their traditional reliance on natural resources, specifically, the flying fish which depend on the coral reef ecosystem for sustenance. By interviewing the Tao, the paper gains a more realistic overview of the situation from the grassroots level. It also serves as an opportunity to see whether the government’s and local peoples’ needs and interests align, and what the overall feedback loop is. From this, deductions concerning local awareness and engagement of coral reef management and protection may be drawn, as well as potential solutions to enhance this cooperation. Finally, interviewing academics is important to see what has already been researched and how past papers have influenced policy-making and public governance, if at all. In conclusion, the paper conjectures that conducting interviews with these three groups, firstly, adds more insight to the data gained from literature review, and secondly, identifies the key issues at the government and local levels that will help form future policies regarding coral reef management and protection.. 6.

(15) 2. Overview of coral reefs in the world The ‘rainforests of the sea’ are both a physical structure and a diverse ecosystem that plays a crucial role for a variety of organisms. Biologically speaking, corals belong to the animal kingdom, built by colonies of tiny animals- clusters of polyps- embedded in calcium carbonate shells. Polyps belong to Cnidaria group and Anthozoa class, related to such marine animals as sea anemones and jellyfish. 9 Succinctly explained by National Geographic, reefs begin when a polyp attaches itself to a rock on the sea floor, then buds into thousands of clones. As it grows and connects, it creates a colony that acts as a single organism. The joining and clustering of colonies over centuries and millennia creates reefs.10 Coral reefs have two primary feeding modes: (1) the catching of tiny floating animals called zooplankton and (2) the receipt of translocated photosynthetic products from a type of single-celled dinoflagellate symbiotic algae called zooxanthellae, 11 which live in the coral’s tissues. Zooxanthellae are autotrophs, meaning that they are capable of synthesizing their own nutritional organic substances from inorganic substances, and as a result they “require only inorganic nutrients, carbon dioxide, and light for photosynthetic carbon fixation”.12 The first part, inorganic nutrients, they may obtain directly from seawater or from the corals themselves, which retain animal waste metabolites derived from holozoic feeding.13 The corals also dissolve carbon dioxide from the water, supplying it and other compounds such as ammonia and phosphate to the algae; in return, zooxanthellae provide the corals with products of photosynthesis such as sugars, carbohydrates, peptides, and amino acids, which consists of up to 90 percent of the corals’ energy requirements. 14 This tight recycling of nutrients between the two is all the more vital given the fact that coral reefs grow in nutrient-poor waters. Furthermore, this low-nutrient tropical marine environment of the coral reefs means that there is a minimal amount of suspended material in the water, translating into the. ‘Coral.’ National Geographic. Accessed 29 December 2016. http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/coral/ 10 Ibid. 11 Charles Birkeland, 1997. Life and Death of Coral Reefs, New York: Chapman & Hall, p. 100. 12 Ibid. 13 Ibid. 14 ‘The Decline of Reefs: Effects of Increased Carbon Emissions on Coral Ecosystems,’ Dartmouth Undergraduate Journal of Science, Winter 2012. Accessed 7 March 2017. http://dujs.dartmouth.edu/2012/03/the-decline-of-reefs-effects-of-increased-carbon-emissions-on-coralecosystems/#.WNS20fmGM2w 9. 7.

(16) ideal conditions for light to reach the algae. Finally, the photosynthetic pigments found in zooxanthellae give the corals most of their colouration.15 Thus, coral bleaching is the break-down of this mutualistic relationship, resulting in the corals losing their colour; this point will be returned to in later sections of the paper. In conclusion, the coral-algal symbiosis constitutes a highly dependent relationship within the coral reef ecosystem. This intricate relationship between the corals and zooxanthellae provides the basis for the plethora of plant and animal species that live in and around it, and together they form the coral reef ecosystem. The importance of this diverse ecosystem is highlighted in the following section.. 2.1. The importance of coral reefs Coral reefs occupy less than one quarter of 1 percent of the marine environment, yet are home to more than 25 percent of all known marine fish species.16 In fact, these ecosystems support more species per unit area than any other marine environment, with estimated 1-8 million species of organisms still left undiscovered. 17 This section will highlight the importance of supporting the coral reefs in the following order: the coral reefs as (i) a critical habitat for numerous animal and plant species; (ii) a source of food and revenue; (iii) a tourist attraction; (iv) a barrier for coastal protection; (v) a source of cultural value and future opportunity. Coral reefs are a critical habitat for a variety of animal and plant species, with circa 4,000 coral reef-associated fish species described to date. 18 They provide protection and shelter for numerous marine animals and play a key role in supporting a stable equilibrium ecosystem. As previously illustrated with the mutualistic relationship between coral reefs and zooxanthellae, the productivity and efficacy of the panorama of underwater life in large part stems from the symbiotic relationship between various organisms. For instance, the langouste, also known as the spiny lobsters (Panulirus interruptus), depend on coral reefs for protection, especially during their vulnerable molting process. Simultaneously, their main prey consists of sea urchins, which feed on kelp forests. Unconstrained, the sea urchins would graze the entirety of kelp forests,. Paul Marshall and Heidi Schuttenberg, 2006, A Reef Manager’s Guide to Coral Bleaching. Australia: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, p. 98. 16 WWF, ‘Coral facts.’ Accessed 28 December 2016. 17 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, ‘Corals: The Importance of Coral Reefs.’ Accessed 10 March 2017. http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral07_importance.html 18 Lauretta Burke et al., 2011, Reefs at Risk Revisited, Washington: World Resources Institute, p. 11. 15. 8.

(17) devastating the habitat of a host of invertebrates, fish, and marine mammals.19 Another example of the importance of reefs in maintaining stability across food webs is the hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricate). Hawksbills primarily feed around coral reefs, foraging on a variety of marine sponges. Sponges compete with coral reefs for space, and by curbing their population, hawksbills change their distribution in reef ecosystems, impacting the overall diversity of coral reef communities.20 Beyond their impact on the reefs, sea turtles play a key role in the nutrient recycling as biological transporters from marine to terrestrial ecosystems. Thus, the ‘rainforests of the sea’ are a critical habitat for numerous species, help with nutrient recycling, and are the source of essential nutrients for marine food chains. Removing just one group of organisms from the reef food web would have cascading effects across the ecosystem, proving that coral reefs act as an important stabilizer for the aquatic equilibrium.21,22 Dynamic and highly productive, the importance of coral reefs is visible beyond serving as a vital shelter for a variety of marine organisms. In fact, approximately one billion people have some dependence on coral reefs for food and revenue.23 A 2007 report from the World Resources Institute estimated that in the Southeast Asian region alone, more than 450 million people live within 100 km of a reef, and almost 150 million people live very close to a reef (less than 10 km from the coast and within 30 km of reefs) – that makes Southeast Asia account for 53 percent of the most reefdependent people:. ‘Kelp Forests,’ National Marine Sanctuaries. Accessed 10 March 2017. http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/about/ecosystems/kelpdesc.html 20 E.G. Wilson et al., ‘Why Healthy Oceans Need Sea Turtles: The Importance of Sea Turtles to Marine Ecosystems,’ July 2010, p.7. Accessed 10 March 2017. http://oceana.org/sites/default/files/reports/Why_Healthy_Oceans_Need_Sea_Turtles.pdf 21 Burke 2011:26. 22 ‘Human impact on the Reef,’ Queensland Museum. Accessed 15 March 2017. http://www.qm.qld.gov.au/microsites/biodiscovery/05human-impact/importance-of-coral-reefs.html 23 NOAA Coral reef conservation Program. Accessed 28 December 2016. http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/fisheries/ 19. 9.

(18) Figure 2: Number of people living near coral reefs in 2007, World Resources Institute. 24. One of the most explicit forms of human dependency on reefs are fisheries, which provide employment, income, and food. The coral reef habitat contains species of fish and other seafood that is commercially targeted for fishing, and exports of these species are an important source of revenue for tropical economies.25 For instance, reefderived fish are one of the most valued fish in the trade, with imports of live reef food fish into Hong Kong estimated at 15-20,000 tonnes and valued at app. US$486 million in 2002.26 Due to the depleted reefs near Hong Kong after the 1990s, these imports have extended into the Indo-Pacific region, with the main exporting countries including Indonesia, the Philippines, Taiwan, Australia, Thailand, and Malaysia, amongst others:. World Resources Institute, ‘Number of People Living Near Coral Reefs in 2007’, February 2011. Accessed 15 March 2017. http://www.wri.org/resources/charts-graphs/number-people-living-nearcoral-reefs-2007 25 Burke 2011:69. 26 Yvonne J. Sadovy et al., 2003, While Stocks Last: The Live Reef Food Fish Trade, Manila, Philippines: Asia Development Bank, p. xi. 24. 10.

(19) Figure 3: Live reef fish trade routes in the Southeast Asian region. The majority of life reef food fish are imported into Hong Kong, China. 27. Significantly, reefs play a frequently overlooked role in poverty alleviation. As most fisheries are open access systems and have relatively low entry costs, reef fishing acts as a ‘social safety-net’ for the unemployed and the mobile labour force.28 Generally speaking, main fishing gear used include spears and nets, and the activity of gleaning – that is to say, harvesting by hand, is practiced predominantly by women and children in and around shallow inshore reef areas.29,30 Reef gleaning and fishing is a prevailing source of subsistence income for poor households, especially visible in many coastal communities. Research concludes that there is a strong dependency on reef fishing as a source of protein for coastal dwellers’ diets, particularly those living below the national poverty line. One example of this are the people on the archipelago of Lakshadweep off the southwestern coast of India, who depend on fishing as a source of 90 percent of their protein intake.31 Furthermore, supplying coral reef fish species and invertebrates for aquariums constitutes yet another source of income for those regions and households that export them. Coral reefs shelter numerous species of fish, and depending on their rarity and. ZSL, ‘The Global Trade in Marine Animals.’ Accessed 15 March 2017. https://www.zsl.org/conservation/threats/illegal-wildlife-trade-crisis/the-global-trade-in-marineanimals 28 Francesca Booker et al., 2013, ‘Reef Dependency and Change: Barbados Case Study,’ Future of Reefs in a Changing Environment Project, p. 13. Accessed 13 March 2017. http://www.force-project.eu 29 Burke 2011:68. 30 Christy Loper et al., 2008, ‘Socioeconomic Conditions along the World’s Tropical Coasts: 2008’, California: Print Runner, p. 23. 31 Ibid, pp. 26-27. 27. 11.

(20) uniqueness, the price for some specimen may range from US$1,000 to US$400,000.32 Various sets of data have been gathered by researchers to evaluate the global shipping pathways of the marine aquarium trade, with the below map specifically illustrating Taiwan’s exports:. Figure 4: Taiwan in the global marine aquarium trade, with exports primarily to the United States. 33. Dependence on reef-derived resources for livelihoods and subsistence is a prevailing trend across the world. If properly managed, it is estimated that reefs can yield circa 15 tonnes of marine food per square kilometre annually.34 Revenues generated by tourism are significant both for the government and local communities. According to the World Resources Institute, reef tourism benefits at least 96 countries and territories, and in 23 countries and territories, reef tourism accounts for more than 15 percent of GDP.35 In Australia, for example, tourism has grown to become the principal industry in the GBR area, with the total value of reef tourism increasing in response to rapid worldwide rise in interest in recreational travel; currently, the economic contribution of the GBR to Australia was calculated at over US$1 billion annually. 36 The value of tourism is also visible in smaller-scale areas. Bonaire, part of the ABC islands in the Caribbean Sea off the northern coast of Venezuela, is surrounded by a 6,7000 acre national marine park. Despite its relatively small size of less than 300 km2 and app. 19,000 inhabitants, the island’s economic activities associated with the reefs earn about US$23 million annually, with the cost of. Jean Ferraiuolo, 2014, ‘10 of the Most Expensive Tropic Fish,’ The Richest. Accessed 15 March 2017. http://www.therichest.com/luxury/most-expensive/10-of-the-most-expensive-tropical-fish/ 33 New England Aquarium, ‘Marine Biodiversity and Trade Flow.’ Accessed 19 March 2017. https://www.aquariumtradedata.org/ 34 WWF, ‘Coral reefs.’ Accessed 28 December 2016. ttp://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/coasts/coral_reefs/coral_importance/ 35 Burke 2011:70. 36 WWF, ‘Coral reefs.’ Accessed 28 December 2016. 32. 12.

(21) managing the park under US$1 million.37 Placing dive shops numbers in relation to their potential economic importance, Bonaire is ranked as having the strongest dependence on dive tourism. 38 Overall, drawn by the coral reefs, tourist spending support a range of local businesses, from hotels, gastronomy, dive shops, transportation, to directly contributing to the management costs of the marine parks through admission fees and donations. Another importance of coral reefs is their role in coastal protection. Healthy coral reefs are effective barriers from the physical impacts of waves and storms by reducing the energy of waves,39 hence protecting human settlements, infrastructure, as well as coastal ecosystems in the form of seagrass meadows and mangrove forests. Naturally, the extent of this protection varies according to different factors (such as geology, depth of coral reefs, degree of slope, distance from shore, et cetera), but nevertheless, coral reefs typically reduce shoreline damages, coastal erosion, and waveinduced flooding. 40 They are also natural coastal protectors against tropical storms, landslides and hurricanes. The World Resources Institute estimates that more than 150,000 km of shoreline in 106 countries and territories receive some degree of coastal protection owing to reefs.41 Appropriate protection and maintenance of reefs would act as a preventative measure against natural hazards, reducing governmental costs spent on coastal defences and insurance and reconstructions expenditure when the former fails.42 Finally, the intangible value and the potential value of the reefs must be acknowledged. Cultural traditions are interlocked with the existence of coral reefs. As in the case of the Taiwan and the GBR, for many societies indigenous heritage and traditional use of marine resources are intricately woven. For instance, for the Tao (Yami), the native population of Orchid Island (Lanyu) situated off the southeastern coast of Taiwan, a crucial component of their maritime tradition centers upon the building of fishing boats and the capture of flying fish, the latter which is regarded as a. Coral Reef Alliance, ‘Tourism.’ Accessed 18 March 2017. http://coral.org/coral-reefs-101/why-careabout-reefs/tourism/ 38 Burke 2011:70. 39 Robert W. Brander et al., 2004, ‘Spatial and temporal variations in wave characteristics across a reef platform, Warraber Island, Torres Strait, Australia,’ Marine Geology 207, p.169. 40 Burke 2011:70. 41 Ibid. 42 WWF, ‘Coral reefs.’ Accessed 28 December 2016. 37. 13.

(22) sacred gift from the heavens.43,44 Coral reef surrounds the island, providing shelter for over a thousand kinds of fish and a source of food for green turtles. Together, the traditions of the Tao are tightly interwoven with their environment, and the destruction of one would translate into the loss of the other. Lastly, the full extent of the potential value of the reef is still undefined, especially as a source of medical advancement. Various reef-dwelling species have “developed complex chemical compounds, such as venoms and chemical defenses, to aid their survival in these highly competitive habitats.”45 According to one coral reef ecologist, humankind is 300-400 times more likely to find new treatments for disease in the oceans than on land. It is estimated that less than ten percent of coral reef biodiversity is known and only a small fraction has been explored as a source of biomedical compounds, thus the potential for new medically valuable discoveries is vast.46,47 As can be observed, the intangible and future values of the coral reefs are key components of why expanded efforts to protect these ecosystems are urgently needed. In summary, this section reviewed the importance of coral reefs both as a critical habitat for numerous species, as well as an ecosystem upon which millions of people depend on worldwide for food, livelihood, and tourism. Beyond their biological value, coral reefs dissipate wave energy, acting as a barrier for coastal protection. Furthermore, coral reefs hold intrinsic value and serve as a cultural and spiritual connection for indigenous societies. Finally, as only a small sample of reef life has been researched, the potential of the coral reefs as a source of medical advancement is vast. Overall, coral reefs are of immense value to humankind, and the WWF report estimates that they provide approximately US$30 billion each year in goods and services. 48 Despite the fact that appropriate sustainability and protection strategies for the coral reefs are in the best interests of many stakeholders, their degradation continues to be a rising problem. Digital Taiwan, ‘Yami Traditional Fishing Boats.’ Accessed 1 January 2017. http://culture.teldap.tw/culture/index.php?option=com_content&id=1194%3Ayami-traditional-fishingboats&Itemid=210 44 Taiwan Indigenous Culture Park, ‘Yami Tribe.’ Accessed 2 March 2017. http://www.tacp.gov.tw/tacpeng/home02_3.aspx?ID=$3061&IDK=2&EXEC=L 45 Burke 2011:12. 46 Andrew Bruckner, 2002, ‘Life-Saving Products from Coral Reefs,’ Issues in Science and Technology. Accessed 12 January 2017. http://issues.org/18-3/p_bruckner/ 47 Burke 2011:12. 48 WWF, ‘Coral reefs.’ Accessed 28 December 2016. 43. 14.

(23) throughout the world. The next section will thus highlight the current situation of coral reefs, pinpointing the most significant local and global threats.. 2.2. Threats to coral reefs Coral reefs are extremely valuable, yet critically vulnerable due to threats on multiple fronts. Drawing on the report compiled by Burke et al., this paper categorizes the threats as either ‘local’ or ‘global’ in origin. Local threats refer to direct human pressures on coral reef, including overfishing and destructive fishing practices, land-based pollution and coastal development, as well as marine-based pollution and damage. Global threats affect reefs through indirect human activities, such as global climate and ocean chemistry.49 Each threat will be individually addressed in the two sections below.. 2.2.1. Local threats (i) Overfishing and destructive fishing practices One of the most explicit forms of human pressure on reefs are fisheries, which provide employment, income, and food. When well-managed, fisheries can act as a sustainable resource, yet current estimates show that 55 percent of the world’s reefs are endangered by overfishing and/or destructive fishing.50 Overfishing occurs when the capture of fish is done with a sufficiently high intensity to deplete the breeding stock levels to such an extent that the fish cannot sustain their population.51 The reasons for overfishing are multifold: population growth; a response to the increased demand for fish and seafood products; the continual improvement of fishing methods to make them more efficient; poor management and/or insufficient enforcement practices; a lack of alternative employment opportunities; as well as simply an immediate monetary incentive that is based on the perceived high value of certain target species, such as sharks and lobsters. The main issue with overfishing is the ecosystem-wide consequences engendered by reducing just one group of fish from the reef food web. As the previous sections illustrated, the reefs depend on mutualistic relationships that keep the stability of the ecosystem in check. The overfishing of one species will have cascading effects. 49. Burke 2011:2. Reef Resilience, 2016, ‘Overfishing and Destructive Fishing Threats.’ Accessed 16 March 2017. http://www.reefresilience.org/coral-reefs/stressors/local-stressors/overfishing-and-destructive-fishingthreats/ 51 Pepijn Koster, ‘Overfishing – a global disaster,’ Overfishing.org. Accessed 16 March 2017. http://overfishing.org/pages/what_is_overfishing.php 50. 15.

(24) across the entire coral reef system. Moreover, while “large predators are often the preferred target species, as their numbers decline, fishers move to smaller, often herbivorous fish” in a process called ‘fishing down the food chain’.52 Consequently, areas of reef that experience heavy fishing may be prone to algal overgrowth, which in turn may lead to an increase of unwanted pathogens, aquatic hypoxia (oxygen deficiency),53 and zooxanthellae expulsion, making the reefs more vulnerable to disease, preventing nutrient absorption, and delaying growth and recovery. Furthermore, some fishing techniques in themselves are detrimental to the reefs. Destructive fishing practices include: . Bottom trawling – dragging a large fishing net called a ‘trawl’ along the sea floor, indiscriminately gathering everything in its path. The main consequences of bottom trawling are, firstly, its bycatch (collateral damage), which can amount to 90 percent of its total catch and may include engendered fish, juvenile species, vulnerable deep-sea corals, and other organisms that were not targeted for capture; and secondly, as the net is equipped with heavy weights to submerge it to the seafloor, its weight and width can destroy large coral reef areas, destroying the marine ecosystem.54. . Cyanide/poison fishing – using cyanide to stun and capture fish live. This is mainly done for the live reef food fish market or as aquarium stock. Again, two main issues arise here: firstly, attempts to collect the fish often result in the damaging of corals, and secondly, poison causes coral bleaching and the annihilation of polyps.55. . Dynamite fishing – using dynamites or other explosives to kill fish, completely destroying the underwater environment in the process. Despite it being illegal in many countries, dynamite fishing nevertheless remains a popular fishing. 52. Burke 2011:26. Rebecca Vega-Thurber et al., 2012, ‘Macroalgae Decrease Growth and Alter Microbial Community Structure of the Reef-Building Coral, Porites astreoides,’ PLoS ONE 7(9): e44246. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0044246. Accessed 23 March 2017. 54 Marine Conservation Institute, ‘Destructive Fishing.’ Accessed 16 March 2017. https://marineconservation.org/what-we-do/program-areas/how-we-fish/destructive-fishing/ 55 Burke 2011:26. 53. 16.

(25) method in Southeast Asia, contributing to the massive destruction of coral reefs in the past two decades.56 . Ghost fishing – this occurs when discarded or lost nets/traps continue to ensnare prey for months/years after their original use. These nets may also become snagged on the seabed, smothering corals and causing damage to the seafloor.57. (ii) Land-based pollution and coastal development Human activities both far inland and in the coastal zone are adding increased pressure to nearshore ecosystems. As Figure 2 illustrates, approximately 850 million people live within 100 km of a reef.58 Development is altering the landscape, increasing terrestrial runoff of sediment, pollution, and nutrients into adjacent waters, thus lowering coastal water quality and marine ecosystem health. Sedimentation, both in low and high amounts, can weaken the health and resilience of coral reefs and other organisms. The contribution of sediment to watersheds stems from anthropogenic activities such as deforestation, road construction, storm water runoff, and chemical spills. Notably, high fertilizer and pesticide usages accompany the intensifying demand for agricultural products. Estimates conducted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations state that the global fertilizer consumption will grow 1.8 percent annually, with the highest rates in South Asia and Africa. 59 Problems with agricultural runoffs are compounded with factory farming, livestock waste, and erosion of natural vegetation by invasive species. Furthermore, the destruction of native plants for coastal development or fish farming purposes facilitates sediment runoff to the coast. Mangrove forests are a prime example of natural buffers that help shelter coastal coral reefs by trapping sediments, dissolving nutrients from the water, and removing a fraction of the riverine inflow of mud. 60 Overall, such anthropogenic activities create a more competitive environment for the reefs, making them more vulnerable to disease outbreaks or climate impacts.. WWF, ‘Fishing problems: Destructive fishing practices.’ Accessed 16 March 2017. http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/problems/problems_fishing/destructive_fishing/ 57 Ibid. 58 World Resources Institute, ‘Number of People Living Near Coral Reefs in 2007,’ February 2011. Accessed 15 March 2017. 59 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, ‘World Fertilizer trends and outlook to 2018,’ Rome 2015, p. ix. Accessed 3 March 2017. http://www.fao.org 60 Teina Rongo et al., 2007, ‘Watersheds and Coral Reefs: Conservation Science, Policy, and Implementation,’ BioScience, Vol. 57, No. 7, July 2007, p. 600. 56. 17.

(26) Sedimentation has two major dimensions: physical and chemical. In large quantities, the physical accumulation of sediments can smother, weaken, and kill corals and other benthic organisms.61 High turbidity levels affect the transparency of water and limit the penetration of sunlight, which can inhibit the ability of aquatic plants and algae to photosynthesize. Sedimentation, even in low levels, may thus slow down or fully disrupt the process of photosynthesis by zooxanthellae, which in turn would impact coral growth.62 Chemical pollution refers to contaminants such as nitrogen and phosphorus that are transported by sediment into the aquatic system.63 Eutrophication, that is to say, excessive levels of nutrients in bodies of water, encourages the growth of phytoplankton and algae, which in turn reduces the clarity of coastal waters and impacts the fragile environment that the zooxanthellae and corals depend on. Additionally, this chemical invasion may strengthen one group of organisms over another, destabilizing the ecosystem as a whole. Indeed, a burst of certain algae or seaweeds on the seafloor may outcompete corals for resources, leading to reef degradation. 64 Finally, a significant threat of nutrient enrichment is hypoxia – the depletion of oxygen levels which creates ‘dead zones’ in biotic environments, leading to their collapse.65 Direct development on the reef in the form of dredging or land filling is also detrimental to coral reef health.66 Unsustainable coastal development and reclamation activities generally cause irreversible and widespread damage to the biodiversity and ecological balance of coral reefs, as epitomized by People’s Republic of China building of artificial islands in the South China Sea. 67 China’s direct physical damage to thousands of acres of reef has been labeled as the quickest permanent loss of coral reefs in human history.68 Reefs are extremely susceptible to a number of factors, and the. 61. Burke 2011:23. Ibid. 63 Natural Recourses Management and Environment Department, ‘Chapter 2: Pollution by sediments’, Food and Cultural Organization of the United Nations. Accessed 17 March 2017. http://www.fao.org/docrep/W2598E/w2598e05.htm 64 Alex Ritchie, ‘The Effects of Three Species of Macroalgae on Acropora Aspera Physiology,’ The Stanford Undergraduate Research Journal, p.39. 65 Camilo Mora, 2015, Ecology of Fishes on Coral Reefs, UK: Cambridge University Press, p. 149. 66 Burke 2011:21. 67 Floyd Whaley, 2015, ‘China’s Island-Building Is Ruining Coral Reefs, Philippines Says,’ The New York Times. Accessed 17 March 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/14/world/asia/chinas-islandbuilding-is-ruining-coral-reefs-philippines-says.html?_r=0 68 Oliver Holmes, 2015, ‘South China Sea Images Reveal Impact on Coral of Beijing’s Military Bases.’ The Guardian. Accessed 17 March 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/world/nginteractive/2015/sep/17/south-china-sea-images-reveal-impact-on-coral-of-beijings-military-bases 62. 18.

(27) cumulative impact of land-based pollution and perpetual coastal development may soon result in a colossal and rapid destruction of the entire ecosystem. (iii) Marine-based pollution and damage Threats to coral reefs from marine-based sources occur on multiple fronts. The movement of commercial, recreational, and passenger vessels takes place on a quotidian basis and in vast numbers all around the world [Figure 5]. Firstly, vessel spillages and waste, such as contaminated bilge water, oil spills and fuel leakages, as well as raw sewage and solid waste discharge directly undermine the health of coral reefs. For brevity purposes, the example of oil spillages will be expanded upon below.. Figure 5: The data points show the movements of the world's commercial shipping fleet on 17 May 2012. The red dots represent huge tankers, the blue dots show dry bulk ships that move cargo like ores, and the yellow dots show ships that carry manufactured products. Green shows gas bulk and purple shows ships carrying vehicles.69. The impact of oil spills on corals varies in severity depending on oil toxicity, coral species, time and length of exposure, et cetera. The toxicity of oil is similarly difficult to determine, as “each spill presents a unique set of physical, chemical, and biological conditions.” 70 Nevertheless, literature shows that oil swiftly and readily bioaccumulates in coral tissues, reduces coral fertility, and damages two fundamental bioenergetic components for the entire ecosystem, namely the “primary production by Ellie Zolfagharifard, 2016, ‘Watch cargo ships sale Earth’s oceans: Hypnotic interactive map follows the route of giant vessels over a year.’ The Daily Mail. Accessed 23 March 2017. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-3562440/Watch-cargo-ships-sail-Earth-s-oceansHypnotic-interactive-map-follows-route-giant-vessels-year.html 70 Ruth A. Yender et al., 2010, ‘Oil Spills in Coral Reefs: Planning and Response Considerations,’ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, July 2010, p. 25. 69. 19.

(28) the zooxanthellae symbionts in coral, and energy transfer via coral mucus.”71 Oil also has an adverse effect on species of fish, invertebrates, plants, as well as turtles, marine mammals, and other seasonal reef-dwellers that are to a varying degree sensitive to direct oil exposure. Despite technical advancements and other efforts to avoid oil spillages, global demand for oil is on the rise and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future. Secondly, direct contact with ships/vessels may lead to extreme damage or permanent killing of coral reefs. This physical destruction occurs as a result of perching or grounding of ships on coral reefs, contact with ship hulls, anchors, propellers, as well as damage caused by fallen debris.72 The grounding and anchoring of cruise ships in particular has aggravated the marine habitat, as most cruise ships have the capability to enter shallow, sensitive areas. By doing so, their anchors and anchor chains inflict severe destruction on coral reefs and the seabed. Figure 6 succinctly depicts marinebased pollution of ships as a result of oil spills, ballast water discharge, and direct damage to the reefs.. Figure 6: Vessels are a major source of marine-based pollution and damage. Inadequate waste management at port and marinas, uncontrolled ballast discharge, and a lack of strictly managed safe shipping lanes and boating areas are just a few of the causes behind this. 73. Lastly, it is crucial to acknowledge invasive species as a marine-originated threat to coral reefs. A 1999 report estimated that vessels may carry in their ballast water anywhere between 3,000 and 10,000 species of marine organisms globally in any given 24-hour period.74 This ‘modern invasion’ is also a result of aquarium releases,. 71. Ibid, pp. 30-31. Burke 2011:25. 73 Yender 2010:38. 74 James T. Carlton, 1999. ‘The Scale and Ecological Consequences of Biological Invasions in the World’s Oceans,’ Invasive Species and Biodiversity Management. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, p.195. 72. 20.

(29) and the effects are detrimental to both coral reefs and native species. The lionfish (Pterois volitans, Pterois miles) is a well-documented example of an invasive species whose population has swelled most likely as a result of aquarium releases, then has become established to varying degrees across the entire Caribbean region via larval dispersal in ocean currents.75 Originally native to the Indo-Pacific, lionfish have driven the Atlantic coral reef fish into decline and have caused a major disruption of the ecosystem. Overall, the invasion of marine predators has detrimental impacts on natural communities and is a serious threat to the well-being of coral reefs and the native species that rely on them. In summary, the major local threats discussed include overfishing and destructive fishing practices, land-based pollution and coastal development, as well as marine-based pollution and damage.. 2.2.2. Global threats The rapid transformations spurred by human activity in all areas of life have drawn scientists to conclude that the Holocene Epoch, commenced approximately 11,700 years before present, is over; instead, based on global evidence that atmospheric, geologic, hydrologic, biospheric, and other earth system processes are now altered by humans, the Anthropocene Epoch has begun.76,77 Indeed, this change is visible on a mass scale, such as in the growth of ‘dead zones’ in coastal areas, increases in carbon dioxide emissions, higher air and oceanic temperatures, ocean acidification, and widespread biodiversity loss. This thesis will discuss two of the most evident global threats that affect reefs through indirect anthropogenic activities: a changing climate and acidifying bodies of water. Changes as a result of global warming are affecting marine organisms and their habitats. A temperature analysis conducted by the Goddard Institute for Space Studies at NASA estimates that the average global temperature on Earth has increased by about 0.8° Celsius since 1880.78 Corals in particular are highly sensitive to alterations in their Stephanie J. Green et al., 2012, ‘Invasive Lionfish Drive Atlantic Coral Reef Fish Declines,’ PLoS ONE 7(3): e32596. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0032596. Accessed 23 March 2017. 76 Jeremy Lovell, 2012, ‘Is Human Impact Accelerating Out of Control?’ Scientific American. Accessed 19 March 2017. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/is-human-impact-acceleratingout-of-control/ 77 Anthropocene. Accessed 19 March 2017. http://www.anthropocene.info/ 78 NASA, ‘GISS Surface Temperature Analysis (GISTEMP).’ Accessed 19 March 2017. https://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/ 75. 21.

(30) environment, and changes in water temperature elicit a stress response known as bleaching. Beyond providing corals with essential nutrients, zooxanthellae cells are also responsible for coral coloration, ranging from a golden-yellow to brown depending on factors such as light intensity. The expulsion of zooxanthellae due to stress renders the coral tissue largely transparent; the unpigmented tissue and the visibility of the calcium carbonate skeleton make the coral appear bright white or ‘bleached’. 79 The term ‘bleaching’ thus describes the loss of coral colour as a result of the loss of zooxanthellae. This phenomenon breaks down the mutualistic relationship between the two, causing the corals to either die or survive, although the latter would still involve reduced coral growth and reproduction, as well as increased vulnerability to diseases and other threats.80 Local stressors like those discussed in the previous section may cause corals to bleach. Increased sea temperatures primarily drive massive coral bleaching. 81 More intense and widespread bleaching events are projected to increase in frequency until they become so regular that corals will simply not have time to recover.82,83 The added challenge of rising carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in the atmosphere further affects the resilience and integrity of coral reefs and marine biota as a whole. Oceans act as one of the major carbon reservoirs, absorbing circa 30 percent of global anthropogenic C02 (although this absorption is not evenly distributed throughout the oceans).84 The absorption of C02 changes the chemistry of the ocean as it reacts with water to form carbonic acid, increasing concentrations of hydrogen ion [H*] and decreasing the ocean pH level in a process called ocean acidification. 85 Ocean acidification leads to a decrease in carbonate ion, which in turn decreases the saturation state of calcium carbonate minerals, “making it more difficult for calcifying marine. 79. Marshall 2006:98. Burke 2011:28. 81 Marshall 2006:99. 82 Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999, ‘Climate change, coral bleaching and the future of the world’s coral reefs,’ Marine and Freshwater Research, Vol. 50. Australia: CSIRO Publishing, p. 853. 83 Burke 2011:31. 84 C.L. Sabine et al., 2004, ‘The Oceanic Sink for Anthropogenic CO 2’, Science, Vol. 305, No. 5682, p. 370. 85 Teach Ocean Science, ‘Coral Reefs and Climate Change.’ Accessed 23 March 2017. http://www.teachoceanscience.net/teaching_resources/education_modules/coral_reefs_and_climate_ch ange/how_does_climate_change_affect_coral_reefs/ 80. 22.

(31) organisms to form their shells and skeletons.”86 This means that ocean acidification not only hinders coral skeleton formation, slowing growth and weakening their organic structure, but also applies to other organisms that depend on the absorption of calcium carbonate to build their shells, such as snails, clams, and urchins. 87 Continued acidification may eventually stop all coral growth and commence a dissolution of carbon structures, causing the entire coral reef ecosystem to fall apart. Figure 7 exemplifies the direct and rapid impact of an increase in acidity on the calcareous shell of a sea butterfly.. Figure 7: The calcareous shell of a sea butterfly was placed in seawater with increased acidity. The timeframe between the first and last image is 45 days. 88. In summary, a warming climate and changing ocean chemistry are among the two most significant secondary consequences of human activities affecting coral reef ecosystems. In order to curtail the cumulative impact of local and global threats, a parallel approach needs to be implemented to protect the future of coral reefs. The next section will thus identify the existing theories and measures in place to safeguard coral reefs.. 2.3. Existing efforts to protect coral reefs There exists a broad range of reef protection approaches aimed at supporting reef health and resilience. Despite the challengers enumerated above, it is possible for live sustainably alongside coral reefs and to derive substantial benefits from them. This section illustrates existing reef management approaches, commencing from the. Long Cao et al., 2007, ‘Effects of carbon dioxide and climate change on ocean acidification and carbonate mineral saturation,’ Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 34, Issue 5, March 2007, p. 1. 87 Teach Ocean Science, ‘Coral Reefs and Climate Change.’ Accessed 23 March 2017. http://www.teachoceanscience.net/teaching_resources/education_modules/coral_reefs_and_climate_ch ange/how_does_climate_change_affect_coral_reefs/ 88 Jennifer S. Holland, 2007, ‘Acid Threat,’ National Geographic, Nov. 2007. Photograph by David Liittschwager. Accessed 23 March 2017. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/11/marineminiatures/acid-threat-text 86. 23.

(32) establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs) and locally managed marine areas (LMMAs). Then, attention will be drawn to international collaboration efforts to protect coral reefs. The need for a global representative system or network to manage marine areas was recognised as early as 1988, at the 17th IUCN general Assembly in San José, Costa Rica, and then again at the Fourth World Parks Congress in Caracas, Venezuela in 1992. 89 In 2002, the World Summit on Sustainable Development called for the “establishment of marine protected areas consistent with international law and based on scientific information, including representative networks by 2012.” According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature, MPAs are defined as an area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means (IUCN, 1994). In order for an area to be regarded as an MPA, it must aim to achieve specific conservation objectives, although it may have additional targets such as promoting education or research or be associated with sustaining cultural values.90 At the most fundamental level, MPAs can be classified into three types: (i) those that are entirely marine, containing subtidal and intertidal but no terrestrial habitat; (ii) those that contain terrestrial, intertidal and subtidal components; and (iii) those that contain terrestrial and intertidal ecosystems only, with no subtidal waters.91 In order to facilitate the comprehension of these classifications, Figure 8 presented below offers a visualization of the tidal zones. Moreover, as MPAs have come to cover a diverse range of tools and management frameworks, the World Bank has put forward a typology of marine management [Table. 1]. The allocation of each MPA to a certain category that. best distinguishes its primary function then facilitates inventory of coastal and marine management alternatives, making it possible to conduct an assessment of MPAs on a global scale. Categorization also helps identify differences and similarities within the overall system, including an estimate of MPA effectiveness.. UNEP-WCMC, 2008, ‘National and Regional Networks of Marine Protected Areas: a Review of Progress,’ p. 13. Accessed 23 March 2017. https://archive.org/stream/nationalregional08well#page/12/mode/2up 90 Ibid. 91 Ibid. 89. 24.

(33) Marine protected areas encompass about 27 percent of the world’s reefs.92 This coverage includes both MPAs and locally managed marine areas, as well as sites where management is tasked to control a single or more types of threat. 93 In general, MPAs have come to cover a diverse repertoire of uses and purposes, ranging from biodiversity conservation goals, fishery goals, to social goals such as food supply, economic vitality, aesthetics, and religious/spiritual fulfilment.94 The effectiveness of an MPA, too, differs in scale and intensity. On the one hand, it includes areas with comprehensive management and protection strategies targeting multiple activities and threats, such as fishing, pollution, and coastal development; on the other hand, it extends to sites with just a few restrictions on harmful activities without a strict legal framework.95 Indeed, the effectiveness of MPAs are not distributed evenly across the globe. Nevertheless, these sites serve as a significant step into coral reef preservation, on the basis of which a future, more effective framework may be built. Table 1: Typology of marine management areas, World Bank 96. Category 1. Title MPAs as Tools Designed Primarily for Biodiversity Conservation and Habitat Protection. 2. Multiuse Marine Management Tools. 3. Sustainable Extractive Use Marine Resource Management Tools. 4. Culture-Ecological/Social Protection Reserves. Description Restricted access or activity; Protection of coastal/marine ecosystem and resources is essential to maintain functionality and productivity Balance between conservation and limited economic activities; Access to sea space and resources is carefully controlled and limited Single or multiple sustainable extractive activities focused on specific resources; Protection of diversity is not the main focus Cultural heritage preservation focus. 92. Burke 2011:6. Ibid. 94 The World Bank, 2006, ‘Scaling Up Marine Management: The Role of Marine Protected Areas,’ Report No, 36635 – GLB, p. 8. 95 Burke 2012:34. 96 The World Bank 2006:9-10. 93. 25.

(34) Figure 8: Tidal zones. One way in which MPAs are generally classified is according to the tidal zones, i.e. the inclusion of terrestrial, intertidal and subtidal components. 97. There are numerous benefits and limitations of MPAs. As coral reefs worldwide are deteriorating on a mass scale in large part due to overfishing, protected areas endeavour to reduce this pressure and contribute to ecosystem-based management of fisheries. For instance, assigning no-take zones (where no extractive activity is allowed) to key areas, such as spawning, nursery, feeding, or sheltering habitats, gives fish species the opportunity to rebound. What is more, studies have shown that organisms within MPAs tend to grow larger and live longer than in adjacent unprotected areas, which in turn affects their reproduction – larger and older fish tend to produce significantly more eggs and larvae than their smaller counterparts, and these larvae tend to grow faster and have a higher survival rate than larvae from younger females.98 This results not only in an increase in population inside the reserve itself, but also a spillover of juvenile and adult species to nearby areas and an export of eggs and larvae.99 Despite these benefits, the costs of creating a no-take zone may be high for certain coastal communities which depend on the area for sustenance and/or employment. Furthermore, the displacement of fisheries may have negative consequences on another marine area unprotected by a reserve, thus simply moving the problem rather than curbing it. On the other hand, fisheries may stand to benefit from MPAs provided that the numbers of fish transported outside the no-take zone from spill-over and export of. Illustrated by Soren Henrich in ‘British Columbia's Natural Legacy.’ Accessed 19 March 2017. http://www.biodiversitybc.org/EN/main/downloads/tnp-2.html 98 Robert C. Francis et al., 2007, ‘Ten Commandments for Ecosystem-Based Fisheries Scientists,’ Fisheries, Vol. 32, No. 5, May 2007, p. 221. 99 National Marine Protected Areas Center, “Do ‘No-Take’ Marine Reserves Benefit Adjacent Fisheries?” MPA Science Brief, p. 2. Accessed 23 March 2017. http://marineprotectedareas.noaa.gov. 97. 26.

(35) eggs and larvae are greater than before the area’s closure. 100 Overall, MPAs which implement and monitor fishing regulations such as safe catch limits or prevent destructive fishing practices are valuable in sustaining the coral reef ecosystem and seafloor. MPAs also play a major role in educating local communities and visitors about the importance of coral reefs. Spreading public awareness and stimulating discussion of reef issues is crucial to encourage key decision-makers and stakeholders to take steps to protect them. MPAs are also a prime location to conduct scientific research and field surveys, especially as the marine biota within protected zones is not disturbed by human activities to the same extent as beyond them. The opportunity to study in such surroundings also serves as a chance to improve the current protected areas through a more informed outlook on marine environments and resources, thus contributing to efficient reef management in the long run.101 Finally, type ii and iii MPAs (that contain terrestrial, intertidal and subtidal components or that contain terrestrial and intertidal ecosystems only, with no subtidal waters)102 that extend into terrestrial areas may provide additional benefits, including limiting coastal development or land-based pollution. Including MPAs in integrated coastal management may also result in greater coordination for the dual protection of coastal and reef resources. This may, however, prove to be difficult due to, inter alia, a limited allocation of funds, inadequate administration, ineffective implementation or lack of proper regulations, and insufficient participation by the local community due to a lack of information or incentives. Unsustainable funding is not just a local problem, but a global challenge. A survey evaluating the running costs of a global MPA network that meets the target of conserving 20-30 percent of the world’s seas are estimated at US$5-19 billion annually.103 What is more, there is no guarantee that such MPAs would be managed effectively. Currently, MPAs in Southeast Asia barely cover 11,650 km2 out of 69,640. 100. Ibid. ‘The Benefits of Marine Protected Areas,’ 2003, Australia: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, p. 17. 102 UNEP-WCMC 2008:13. 103 Andrew Balmford et al., 2004, ‘The worldwide costs of marine protected areas,’ PNAS, Vol. 101, No. 25, June 2004, pp. 9694-9697. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0403239101. Accessed 23 March 2017. 101. 27.

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