• 沒有找到結果。

Examining the Moderating Effect of Occupational Commitment on Contract Breach-Job Stress Relations

N/A
N/A
Protected

Academic year: 2021

Share "Examining the Moderating Effect of Occupational Commitment on Contract Breach-Job Stress Relations"

Copied!
31
0
0

加載中.... (立即查看全文)

全文

(1)

Chiao Da Mal1agemel11 Reνlew Vol. 31 No. 2, 2011

pp. 1-31

檢視職業承諾對於心理契約違反的影響

Examining

the

Moderating

Effect of Occupational

Commitment on Contract Breach-Job Stress Relations

業穎蓉 I Ying-Jung Yvonne Yeh

國立台灣科技大學企業管理學系

Department of Business Administration, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology

4月昌亞 ChangyaHu

國立政治大學企業管理學系

Department of Business Administration, National Chengchi Unjversity

摘要:本研究探討員工面臨雇主違背心理契約的時 fl案,職業承諾是否調節知覺 雇主違背心理契約與員工工作壓力的關條 。 本研究樣本取自於北部地區三所地 區醫院,共回收有效問卷 364 。 本研究發現,當員工0.受到雇主違反心理契約 時 ,會有較高的工作壓力,而且,這兩者的正向關述,會因為員工的情是良性職 業承諾而增強 。持續性職業承諾則沒有此調節影響 。 有別於過去知覺心理契約 之研究多半專注在員工的組織承諾所扮演之角色,本研究從職業承諾觀點來出 發,發現情威性職業承諾會調節心理契約違反與壓力反應的關像 。 研究最後, 也提出管理意泊及未來研究方向 。 關鍵字:職業承諾,心理契約; 工作壓力;壓力源 ;社會交換關條

I Corresponding author: Department of Business Administration, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei City, Taiwan, E-mail: yyeh@ba.ntust.edu.tw

The authors gratefully acknowledge the constructive comments of the two anonymous reviewers and the sponsorship from the National Science Council (project number NSC 95-2416-H-OII-OI7)

(2)

2 Examining lhe Moderaling EffeCl ofOccupational Commilmenl on Conlracl Breach-Job Slress Relations

Abstract : The authors examine the moderating effect of occupational commitment on job stress when employees perceive employer's violations of psychological

contracts. Data gathered from 364 nurses show a positive association between perceived breacbes of psycbological contracts and job stress. The data also indicate

that this association intensifies as level of affective occupational commitment

increases

,

suggesting an exacerbating effect of affective commitment. However

,

no moderating effect was observed for continuance occupational commitment. Research

and managerial implications are discussed.

Keywords: Occupational commitment; Psychological contract breach; Job stress;

Job stressor; Social exchange relationship

1.

Introduction

Recent research has focused on the impact of excbange relationships on employee behavior from a perspective of psychological contracts-defined as employee beliefs regarding reciprocal obligations between them and their organizations (Morrison and Robinson

,

1997; Rousseau

,

1989). Among the many

concepts specified in the theory of psychological contract, contract breacbes (i.e., when either party perceives the other as failing to fulfill its obligations) have received

much research attention because it can generate distru泣, feelings of violation

,

dissatisfaction

,

or relationship dissolution (Morrison and Robinson

,

1997; Raja

,

Johns and Ntalianis

,

2004; Robinson and Morrison

,

2000; Rousseau

,

1989). Lack of

reciprocity is considered a crucial work-related stressor that can lead to symptoms of emotional distress (anger, anxiety, or helplessness) or health problems sucb as coronary heart disease (Bakker

,

Schaufeli

,

Sixma

,

Bosveld

,

and van Dierendonck

,

2000; Geurts

,

Buunk and Schaufeli

,

1994; Niedhammer

,

Tek

,

Starke and Siegrist

,

2004; Peter and Siegrist, 1999). Although contract breacb is a type of lack of reciprocity in the employment relationship (Coyle-Shapiro and Kessl仗, 2002), the

(3)

Chiao Da Managemenl Review Vol. 31 No. 2, 2011

role of contract breach in employee outcomes is rarely examined in job stress Iiterature. According to scholars in the field of job stress

,“

stressor" is defined as an environrnental demand or stimu\i that may tax or exceed a person' s resources to meet the challenges, and endanger his or her well-being (i.e. poor mental or physical health or well-being (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984)

“Stress" is

an individual's psychological and physiological responses to the stressor. Since the \iterature on psychological contract breach has suggested that contract breach is 企equently associated with negative effects (Zhao, Wayne, Glibkowski and Bravo, 2007), it may lead to experienced stress and physical complaints (Maslach, Schaufeli and Leit仗, 2001) However, there is a paucity in studies that \inks psychological contract breach to stress reactions. To narrow this research gap, the first purpose of this study was to investigate whether the contract breach perceived by the 巴mployee is a s甘'essorthat may induce the stress reactions

The subjective nature of psychological contracts dictates that responses to breaches depend on individual interpretations (Ho, Weingart and Rousseau, 2004; Morrison and Robinson, 1997; Raja et al., 2004; Robinson and Morrison, 2000). Among the many factors that may affect these interpretations, the extent to which that an employee perceives the job itself is important to himJher may be particular relevant to such inte巾retation. For employees who perceive the job as a part of self二 identity, the work experience may have a greater impact on their attitudes and behaviors. Therefore, occupational commitment, which 時, one's commitment to an occupation, profession, or career (Moηow, 1983), may be an impo此ant factor that influence how employees interpret psychological contract breach. Occupational cornrnÌtment has been identified as a reliable predictor of employee work attitudes and behaviors (Mey缸,Allen and Smith, 1993; Snape and Redman, 2003). A number of job stress researchers have proposed that commitment acts in a similar manner in terms of moderating how individuals respond to stressful events (Irving and Coleman, 2003; Leong, Furnham and Cooper, 1996). Some believe that it has a buffering effect on the stressor-stress relationship (Antonovsky, 1979; Begley and Czajka, 1993;

(4)

4 Examining Ihe Moderaling EfJecl ofOccupalional Commilment on Conlracl Breach-Job Stress Relalions

Kobasa

,

(982)

, while others argue that

it exacerbates reactions to stressors (lrving and Coleman

,

2003; Lazarus and Folkman

,

1984; Mathieu and Zajac

,

(990). With recent adoption of flexible work arrangements by enterprises, job stability and security in the traditional employment relationship have gradually eroded. As employers continually violate their promis郎,employees in tum have attenuated their organizational commitment. Furthermore, with the rise of boundaryless career (Arthur,1994), employees become more concemed about employability or professional advancement of their own (Cappelli, (999). An increasing number of scholars (e.g. Cappelli

,

1999; Jo仙lson, 1996; Meyer and Allen

,

1997; Snape and Redman, 2003) hold the viewpoints that the contingency nature of the workforce, resulting from organizational instability and flexible employment arrangements, is causing employees to shift their commitment from

“increasingly transient

work organizations to the relative stability oftheir occupations" (Snape and Redman, 2003, p.(52). However, few researchers have looked at the effects of occupational commitment and its mix of core values, career orientation, and personality on organizational behavior. Meyer et al., (1993) found that occupational commitment is not only related to occupation-relevant activity, but also related to organization-relevant behavior. Moreover, they also demonstrated that when investigating organizational behaviors, commitment to different entities (e.g. occupation) cannot be ignored, in addition to different forms of commitment to the same entity (e.g organization). Accordingly, the second purpose of this study was to investigate how occupational commitment influences reactions to contract breaches. The present research contributes to organizational behavior Iiterature by first, identifying the role of psychological contract breach in work-related stress, and second, investigating the role of occupational commitment, an increasingly important factor, in one's interpretation of contract breach

1.1.

Psychological Contract Breach and Job Stress

(5)

Chiao Da Managemenl Reνiew Vol. 31 No. 2, 2011 5

characteristics, incIuding job ambiguity, role conflicts, and job demands (Spector and Jex, 1998). Some researchers have examined the social relation aspects of job stressors-for exampl巴,supervisor support or perceived organizational support (Frone, 2000; Janssen, 2004; Tumer, 1981). Less attention has been paid to s甘essorstied to the organizational dimensions of a work environment. Pines (1982) argued that these types of stressors (e.g., bureaucratic resistance, organizational policy, or communication problems) are as critical to employee bumout as job and social dimensions. It is not our intention to identify organizational stressors in this paper;

instead, acknowledgment is given to organizational obligations in the eyes of employees and the consequences of not fulfilling them at a satisfactory level Psychological contracts are developed when

organizational agents (recruiters, direct supervisors

,

human resource managers) make certain promises to employees about what they can expect from the organization" (Tumley and Feldman

,

1999

,

p. 898). Perceptions of contract breaches can result from unrealistic expectations that develop from the recruitment stage forward due to miscommunication, lack of communication, or lack of reciprocity between the two parties.

According to Blau (1964)

,

social exchange relationships are based on the reciprocity principle. ln the employment relationsh巾, companies offer job security and predictable advancement in retum for employee loyalty and good performance According to Rousseau (1990), employees believe that employers are obligated to provide sufficient pay and career advancement opportunities in exchange for hard work, and to give job security in exchange for loyalty and minimum length of stay As Morrison and Robinson (l997) note, a breach occurs when employees perceive that their organizations have failed to fulfill these obligations

Researchers have identified specific responses to perceived contract breaches feelings of violation, decreased job satisfaction (Ho et al., 2004; R貝ja et al., 2004;

Robinson and Morrison, 2000; Zhao et al., 2007), lack of trust in an organization (Robinson and Rousseau, 1994), d巳creased organizational commitrnent (Coyle-Shapiro and Kessler, 2000; Zhao et al., 2007), reduced in-role pa前icipationand fewer

(6)

6 Examining the Moderating ξffecl ofOccupational Commitment on Contracl Breach-Job Slress Relations extra-role behaviors (Lester and Kickul, 2001), fewer organizational citizenship behaviors (Coyle-Shapiro and Kessler, 2000; Restubog, Bordia and Tang, 2007; Robinson and Morrison, 2000; Zhao et al., 2007), and an increase in deviant behaviors (Restubog et al., 2007)

Past research pointed out that when employees perceived being be甘ayedby the organization, the feelings of anger, frustration, bitterness or even outrage occur (Morrison and Robinson

,

1997). The reduced predictability and control may consequently lead to stress for the individual (Shore and Tetrick, 1994; Gakovic and Tetrick

,

2003). According to Peter and Siegri哎 's (1999) effort-reward imbalance model

,

lack of reciprocity is a crucial work-related stressor. The imbalance inc\udes having a demanding but unstable job, or being forced to achieve at a higher level without a promotion in retum. Their study conc\uded that these work-re1ated stimuli may trigger psychological (e.g., anger, frustration, anxiety, he1plessness) or physiological responses (e.g.

, neuro-hormonal

and imrnune reactions that increase the risk of cardiovascular disease). Since perceived psychological breach is a manifestation of lack of predictability and imbalance of effort-reward in the work place, we argued that that perceived contract breaches can induce employee stress reactions, both psychological and somatic. This hypothesis is expressed as:

H1: Perceived psychological contract breaches are positively associated with job stress.

1.2.

Occupational Commitments as Moderators

Individuals interpret perceived breaches differently and thus react to breaches in different ways (Ho et al., 2004; Morrison and Robinson, 1997; Raja et α1. , 2004; Robinson and Morrison, 2000). Specifically, Morrison and Robinson (1997) suggest that reactions to perceived contract breach巴s are based on an individual's sense-making process

,

while Robinson and Morrison (2000) assert that attributions and fairness perceptions interact with perceived breaches when individuals analyze their

(7)

Chiao Da Managemenl Reνiew Vol. 31 No. 2, 2011 7

feelings regarding violations. R句 a et 例, (2004) report that personality traits moderate the relationship between contract breaches and emotional responses-that is,

an individual with a strong intemal locus of control and/or equity sensitivity is more likely to associate breach experiences with feelings of violation

The same perspective that individual differences moderate the interpretation of work experience can be found in the job stress literature, For example, Irving and Coleman (2003) reported that individual differences in areas such as locus of control and situational factors such as social support are among the most studied variables in predicting how one reacts to stressors. Other scholars (lrving and Coleman

,

2003; Leong et al., 1996; Siu and Cooper, 1998) that examined the role of organizational commitment in the relationship of job s甘essors and stress reactions have reported mixed findings, Specifically, Begley and Czajka (1993), Hochwarter, Perrew丘,Ferris

and Guercio (1999), and Siu and Cooper (1998) have all identified a buffering effect from organizational commitment. However, Leong et al., (1996) failed to find a moderating effect even though they observed a direct link between organizational commitrnent and stress. Irving and Coleman (2003) make a distinction between affective and continuance organizational commitment

,

and suggest an exacerbating effect for both forms.

We offer two potential reasons why these inconsist巴ncies may occur. First, it may be a resuIt of an overestimation of the moderating e叮ect of organizational commitment. Mathieu and Zajac (1990) are among several research teams suggesting that low organizational commitrnent is a consequence of work-related stressors and vice versa (see also Boswell, Olson-Buchanan and LePine, 2004; Leong et al., 1996; Siu and Cooper, 1998). lt may not be able to explain the attribution processes when one reacts to the stressors. However

,

occupational commitment-that 峙 an individual's commitment to a speci日c occupation, profession, or career (Moηow, 1983)-is more stable than organizational commitment and less likely to be inf1uenced by extemal stimuli within the organizations. Second, the changing nature of work has made the role of occupational commitment an important antecedent to employee

(8)

8 Examining Ihe ModeratingξfJecl ofOccupaliona/ Commitment on Conlracl Breach-Job Slress Re/ations

outcomes and that understanding of organizational behaviors can be enhanced by incorporating occupation-related variables into the research models (Lee, Carswell,

and Allen

,

2000). Since occupational comrnitment also represents beIief in and acceptance of the values of a chosen occupation (Vandenberg and Scarpello, 1994),

when faced with work-related demands that constrain or otherwise interfere with work achieveme則, employees may choose to leave an organization but not necessarily change their occupation. Employees with different levels of occupational comrnitment may react to such job stressor related to the organization differently because the occupation has different meanings to them. According to Rousseau (2001)

,

one's professional ideology is often established prior to encountering specific employers. On the basis of the above statements, we ar訊le that occupational values play a role in attribution processes that influence the range of reactions to broken promises beyond and above the influence of organizational comrnitment.

There are two competing perspectives for predicting the effect of commitment on the stressor-stress reIationship: exacerbating or buffering. Supporters of the first perspective (e.g., Lazarus and FoIkman, 1984) have suggested that commitrnent increases an individual's vulnerability to psychological threats-in other words, those who make emotional investments in organizations may experience greater stress (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990). Supporters of the second perspective (e.g., Antonovs旬, 1979; Begley and Czajka, 1993; Kobasa, 1982) argue that commitment creates a sense of belonging by allowing employees to find value in their work, thus diverting attention from stressful events

We beIieve there are three reasons why occupational commitment may exacerbate the negative relationship between psychological contract breach and stress reactions. First, comrnitment serves as a factor in vu1nerability (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984). In identifying cue-sensitivity as a mechanism, Lazarus and FoIkman argued that“cornmjtrnents influence appraisal through the manner in which they shape cue-sensitivity" (p. 57). They used the example of a rejection from medical school being much more harmful to a student who has a strong commitment to becoming a doctor

(9)

Chiao Da Managemenl Reνiew Vo/. 31 No. 2. 2011 9

than to a student who considers medicine as one of several career choices. In a

similar fashion, we argue that when individuals are committed to a profession, they

become more sensitive to how the job rewards reciprocate their input, and are

incJined to intensi秒 discrepancies between their expectations and reality. ln other

words

,

the greater the strength of the occupational commitment

,

the more frus甘ated

employees feel when employers fail to fulfill their promises.

Second, cognitive dissonance theory may explain (at least in part) the

exacerbating role of occupational commitment. Festinger (1957) suggested that

employees are likely to experience cognitive dissonance when they are required to

deal with incongruent goals among multiple coalitions. For example, conflict is likely

to occur when workers experience strong attachment to their occupations but feel

betrayed due to unfair treatment on the pa此 oftheir employers. Elliot and Devine

(1994) suggest that individuals search for and implement strategies such as exiting to

alleviate dissonance resulting from perceptions of inconsistency. However

,

they also

suggest that individuals must experience psychological discomfort before taking

action. Along the same line of thinking

,

Rousseau (2001) suggests that the ways in

which workers perceive their professional values in the workplace may explain

differences in their responses to their environments. Conflict occurs when

professional ideologies differ from organizational values. As a result, given the same

level of an employer's contract breaches, greater level of stress will be felt by those

employees placing greater value in their occupations. Therefore, we argue that the

higher one's occupational commitment, the greater the chances an individual will

experience dissonance and discomfort when perceiving contract breaches

Finally, the role of occupational commitment in the job stressor-burτlOut

relationship may be explained by Reilly's (1994) employed identity theory. Reilly

posited that highly committed workers have a more organized and salient set of

role-relevant meanings compared to those held by less committed workers. Therefore,

distress resulting from inconsistencies with role expectations should be greater for those with stronger ties to those roles. Reilly observed that workers who are more

(10)

10 Examining the Moderating Effect ofOccupational Commitment on Contract Breach-Job Stress Relations strongly committed to their nursing careers react more negatively when they experience work-re\ated stress. Her findings support the “exacerbation" point of view described above. In a similar manner

,

Rousseau (2001) believes that psychological contract formation is partly a product of employment occupation ideology

Employees who have strong commitments to their occupations may have role

expectations that are best described as ideological. lt is this ideal that attracts them to their chosen profession. Consequently, the higher the expectations based on these ideals, the greater the potential disappointment

Based on this background, our second hypothesis is expressed as

H2: Occupational commitment moderates the relationship between perceived breaches

0/

psychological contracts and job stress such that workers who are more committed to their occupation wiU 叫periencemore stress than those who are less committed when they perceive contract breaches.

The study framework is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Research Framework

Occupational

Researchers have treated occupational commitment as a multi-dimensional construct (BI仙, 2003; Irving, Coleman and Cooper, 1997; Meyer and AIIen, 1991; Meyer et al., 1993). To explain occupational commitment, Meyer et al., expanded

(11)

Chiao Da Managemenf Reνiew Vol. 31 No. 2, 2011 11

their three-component model of organizational commitment: affective (value-based),

normative (obligation-based), and continuance (costs and benefits-based), In spite of

general agreement that the nature of one's commitment may explain differences in organizational behaviors

,

few researchers have focused on these distinctions when examining the moderating effects of occupational commitment on the stressor-stress relationship

Although scholars have identified the moderating roles of continuance and affective organizational commitments in the stressor-strain relations (Irving and Coleman, 2003), we were unable to identif扯 studiesthat distinguish continuance from affective occupational commitment when analyzing their potential moderating effects Furthermore, Irving and Co\eman (2003) found that both types of organizational commitments intensify the stressor-stress relationship, Their findings suggest that

whether employees with strong organizational commitment remain with the organization because of emotional attachment (affective commitment) or lack of alternatives (continuance commitment)

,

these individuals are more susceptible to the negative impacts of organizational stressors, ln other words, their study supports the

argument that commitment makes workers more vulnerable to occupational stress Given that 00 available study has examined the differentiating roles of different

forms of occupational commitment in the job stressor-stress relations, we followed the suggestioo by lrving and Coleman (2003) and examined the moderating effects of

a 仟巴ctive and continuance occupational commitment 00 the stressor-stress

(12)

12

2.1.

Sample

Examining the 蜘derating ξffecto/Occupational Commitment on Contract Breach-Job Stress Relations

2. Method

The questionnaires were sent to the three urban hospitals in northem Taiwan. Of 600 questionnaires dis甘ibutedto nurses (100% female) worki月 inthe hospitals

,

364 were completed and deemed usable (61% response rate) on a drop-in basis Compared with studies published in the major academic joumals, the response rate in this study did not show a deviation 台omthe acceptable norm (within one SD of the average) and might not be threatened by non-response bias2(Baruch and Holtom,

2008)

Among the respondents, 87 percent were between the ages of 20 and 35, 53 percent were married, 63 percent were employed ful1-time, 35 percent were employed as part-time or contract nurses, and 41.3 percent had worked in their current hospital for 4 to 9 years. The majority ofthe sample (63%) held baccalaureate or advanced degrees in nursing

2.2.

Psychological Contract Breach Measure

A five-item measure developed by Robinson and Morrison (2000) was used to assess global perceptions of contract breaches. Items were designed to ref1ect employees' cognitive-focused perceptions of how wel1 their organizations fulfilled their obligations. Robinson and Morrison (2000) suggest that trus instrument offers an overal1 assessment of an employer's obligation fulfil1ment

,

which is consistent with existing conceptualizations of psychological contract breaches (see also Robinson, 1996; Rousseau, 1989). Responses were asked to answer the items on a 1 -5 scale ranging 仕om “stronglydisagree" to "strongly agree." Sample items include

I

2 Accordi咚 10the analysis by Baruch and Holtom (2008), the average response rates in health care industry and if the questionnaires were completed in-personldrop-in were 53.8% (SD = 20.0), and 62.4% (SD = 16.9) respectively . The analysis for whether the respondents are different 台omthe non-respondents should be conducted ifthere is a deviation from the norm (one SD ofthe average)

(13)

Chiao Da Managemenl Reνiew Vol. 31 No. 2. 2011 13

have not received everything promised to me in exchange for my contributions" and “1 feel that my employer has fulfilled the promises made to me when 1 was hired" (reverse scored). The coefficient alpha for this scale was 0.70

Our choice of this global measure instead of a composite measure (巳.g.,

discrepancies in scores between obligations and fulfillment using a list of

psychological contract items such as pay, training, or job security) is based on two reasons. First, we do not intend to identify whether psychological contract breach in a specific area as a job-stressor. Rather

,

our goal was to examine overall employee evaluations of the extent to which their organizations fulfilled their obligations, as well as the consequences of failures to do so. Second

,

McLean Parks

,

Kidder and Gallagher (1998) note that developing an appropriate set of psychological contract

content measures applicable to all employees in today's complex employment

environrnent is difficult, if not impossible

2.3.

Occupational Commitment Measure

Affective and continuance occupational commitment items (six for each type) were taken from the occupational comrnitment scales developed by Meyer et al., (1993). ltems such as "[ am proud to be in the nursing profession" and

1 dislike being a nurse" (reverse scored) address affective occupational commitment. ltems such as "Changing professions now would be difficult for me to do" or“It would be

costly for me to change my profession now" address continuance comrnitment

Responses were recorded on the same five-point scale as for the psychological contract breach meaSure, with a high score indicating a high level of commitment Alpha reliabilities were 0.83 and 0.82 for affective and continuance occupational

comrnitment, respectively

2.4.

Job Stress Measure

This measure was adapted from Benoliel, McCorkle, Georgiadou, Denton and

(14)

14 Examining the Moderating 趕併ctolOccupational Commitment on Contract Breach-Job Stress Relations

we selected the “personal reaction" subset to measure psychological, physical, and

behavioral responses to stressful workplace situations. The other four domains are

more closely linked to job stressors (i.e., the environmental work demands described in an earlier section or work concems related to knowledge and professional

competence) that are beyond the scope of this study. Sample items include “1 have

felt helpl的5,',“1 have felt frustrated,"“1 have been low on energy,"“1 have felt

tense," and

1 have felt anxious." Responses were recorded on a five-point (agree/disagree) scale. Reliability alpha was calculated as O.的

2.5. Control Variables

Length of service with current employer, job status, marital status, and educational level were used as control variables due to their potential for exerting confounding effects. Age was not included because of its correlation with length of service. Job status was coded as 1 for full-time employees and 0 for

part-time/contract employees. Marital status was coded as I for married and 0 for unmarried. Educational level was coded as 1 for college degree holders and 0 for employees who had received 3 to 5 years of professional nursing training. In

addition, Meyer et al., (1993) suggested 出at how an employee behaves on the job

may be intluenced jointly by commitment to the organization and to the occupation

Therefore, we included affective and continuance organizational commitment in

regression analyses as control variables. Alpha reliabilities were 0.85 and 0.71 for affective and continuance organizational commitrnent

,

respectively

3.

Results

3.

1.

Descriptive Statistics

Data on mean, standard deviation, and correlation coefficients are shown in

(15)

Chiao Da M.αnagemel1 f Review Vol. 31 No. 2, 2011 15

continuance occupational commitment and low levels of perceived contract breaches

and job stress. Job stress was positively correlated with perceived psychological

contract breaches (r = .27, p < .0 1), negatively correlated with affective occupational commitment (r

=

-.41, p < .01), and negatively correlated with seniority, marital

status (married workers reported less stress) and employment status (full-time

workers reported less stress). No signi自 cantcorrelations were observed between job

stress and continuance occupational commitment or education

,

or between

continuance occupational commitment and psychological contract breaches. The

positive correlation between continuance occupational commitment and affective

occupational commitment was statistically significant, but with a small effect size (r

= .l5

,

p <.01)

To provide evidence for convergent and discriminate validities

,

we conducted the confirmatory factor analysis following the suggestions by Anderson and Gerbing (1988). Results showed that the factor loadings of all items were significant in six factors (contract breach, job stress, affective and continuance organizational

commitment, and affective and continuance occupational commi伽1ent),providing the

evidence for the convergent validity. ln addition

,

the CFA results also showed that all the confident intervals of covariance did not include the value of 1, suggesting all the variables are distinguishable

3.2.

Regression analysis

Hierarchical regressions were performed with and without two forrns of

organizational commitment as control variables. ln Model 1 (See Table 2),

demographic variables were entered at Step 1 of the equation as control variables, followed by the main effects (occupational commitrnent and psychological breaches) at Step 2 and mean-centered interaction terrns (Ping, 1996) at Step 3. 1n Model 2 (See

Table 2), two forrns of organizational commitment were included as control variables

along with demographic variables at Step 1 ofthe equation

,

and followed by the same

(16)

16 Examining the Moderating Effect ofOccupational Commitment

on Contract Breach-Job Stress Relations

Results are summarized in Table 2. As shown in Model 1

,

the control variables accounted for 8 percent of the variance in job stress (F = 4.94, p < .01), contract breach

,

affective and continuance occupational commitment accounted for an additional 18 percent (L1F = 26.9, p < .01), and the interaction term accounted for 2 percent (L1F = 3.49

,

p < .05). As shown in Model 2

,

the control variables (inc1uding both forms of organizational commitment) accounted for 19% of the variance in job stress (F = 10.28, p < .01). Contract breach, affective and continuance occupational commitment accounted for an additional 9 percent (L1F = 14.67, p < .01), and the interaction term accounted for 1 percent (L1F

=

2.70, p < .05). The results for H 1 and 2 are consistent

,

with or without controlling for the two types of organizational commJtment

1. Tenure b

Table 1

Means, Standard Deviations, Correlations and Reliabilitiesa

Mean SD 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

3.00 1.44 2. Work status C 65 .48 .39" 3. Marital status d .53 .48 .51" .24 4. Education e 64 .48 .03 .07 .04

5. Aff. org. commit. 3.48 .68 .38" .23" .22" 的 (.85) 6 Con. org. commit. 3.24 .65 .27" .19" 之。 .06 .28" (.71) 7. Aff. occ. commit

8. Con. occ. commit 9. Contract breach 10 Job stress 司、M) ny (

-l -U , 7 句/勻 g b ( 勾 7 的 。 onurt (-呵呵 •• 月→ 5JO-­ BEJ34

(--...

•• 司、 d 令 J M LU 外 421 、 J EA' 、 dtE1

..

....

•• ll AU1J 弓3AU『 q d 司 4 . ll25

0ooo

--...

" LUAUAUTf3 , 1 司 LAUINU

--..

-句 j 司、 M AU 一句 3 :lll ..

...

...

i* 正丸, l' 、 d 弓, , 2202 AUT』呵,,勻, 句' , 弓, e 弓, 4 ,、 J 4U 弓, 4OOA-T LUA 且可守 joδ 司、 d 令、 d 弓 , b 勻 ,&

'n ~ 364; alpha reliabilities are in parentheses

b 1 ~ less than 1 year; 2 ~ I-Iess than 3 ye叮s;3 ~ 3-less than 6 years; 4 ~ 6-less than 9 years; 5 ~ 9-less than 12 years; 6 ~ 12-less than 15 years; 7 ~ 15 years or more

'0 ~ part-time or contract employee; 1 ~ full-time formal employee

d 0 ~ not married; 1 ~ married.

'0 ~ 3-5 professional nursing school; 1 ~ college or equivalent p<.05, “p<.OI

(17)

Chiao Da Management Review Vol. 31 No. 2. 2011 17

Hl

(predicting a positive association between a perceived contract breach and

job stress) was supported since perceived contract breaches were positively related to job 的ess among the participating nurses

=

.19 and .15, p < .01) in the two regression models, respectively). This confirrns that employee perceptions of

psychosocial contract breach can induce emotional stress in the form of frustration,

helplessness, and powerlessness. H2 (predicting a moderating effect of affective and

continuance occupational comrnitment on contract breach-associated stress) only received partial support since the moderating effect was only observed for affective

occupational commitment

= .13,p < .01 in Mode1 1, and.1 I,p < .05 in ModeI2), not the continuance occupational commitment. Furthermore

, affective

occupational

commitment and continuance occupational commitment exhibit different direct

effects on job stress: negative for the affective occupational commitment (戶=-.33

,

P

< .01 in Model 1, and -.25, p < .01 in Model 2),and positive for the continuance

occupational commitment (戶悶,p< .01 in Model 1, and .20,p < .01 in Model2) To further analyze the moderating role of affective occupational commitment,

we adopted a procedure outlined in Aiken and West (1991) by examining the simple slopes of the job stress on perceived psychological contract breach at high (one standardized deviation above the mean) and low (one standardized deviation above

the mean) affective occupational commitment conditions. As shown in Figure 2

,

the

simple slope at the high affective occupational commitment condition exceeded it at

the low level condition, indicating that affective occupational commitment strengthens the relationship between contract breach and job stress. Thus, the

exacerbating effect of affective occupational commitment was supported by our data

such that nurses who are strongly committed to their occupation due to affective

factors were found to be mor巴 vu\nerableto job stress when they perceived that their

employers did not fulfill their promises, even though they reported lower levels of

(18)

18 Eλ amining Ihe Moderafing Efj告ClofOcCI仰lionalCommitme171 017 Conlract Breach-Job Sfress Relafions

Table 2

Results of Moderated Hierarchical Regression Analyses for Job Stress

Modell Model2

B RI B RZ

(t.R2

) (t.R2)

StHHep

OOSS1PD.IIttCaal lo23 nt(rdoul mVmayr) iable

4 10 osp3o(rdguamnlmzayt) 1on 04 17' Tenure in -.24 -.10 Job status -.03 -.03

Education level -.03 -.02

Marital status -.03 08 -.04

Affective org. commit -.21

Continuance org. commit

1 19

Step 2. Main Effects

Contract breach 19 15"

Affective occup. commit -.33 -.25

Continuance occup. commit 18 26 20" (2099.. .) (.18 )

Step 3. Interaction Effects Breach • aftèctive 13 11 Breach • continuance -.02 LQD 27 -.01 (01) 30" p < .05, •• p< .01

4. Discussion

Consistent with the premises of imbalanced social exchange relations

,

0叮 findings support the idea that the perceived psychological contract breaches relate positively to stress responses such as anxiety, fatigue, and helplessness in the workplace (Buunk, Doosje, Jans and Hopstaken, 1993; Geurts et al., 1994; Geurts, Schaufeli and Rutte, 1999; Niedhammer et al., 2004) Our findings a1so extend the outcomes of psychologica1 contract breaches to job s仕ess reactions (Morrison and Robinson, 1997; Raja et al., 2004; Robinson and Morrison, 2000) and support our assumption that contract breach is a work-related stressor.

(19)

ChiaoDaManαIgement Reνiew Vol. 31 No. 2. 2011

Figure 2

Plot of Interaction Between Psychological Contract 8reach and Affective Occupational Commitment

Job Strcss 4

Low High

Psychological Contract Breach

• Lowaffcctivc conunitment • High affCClivc

commltmcnt

19

Our findings also highlight the role of occupational cornmitment on employee outcomes above and beyond the intluence of organizational commitments. Meyer et al., (1993) suggested that occupational commitment did make a significant contribution to the prediction of organization-relevant outcomes even wben organizational commitment was controlled. Our results also extend this line of literature by demonstrating a similar effect in tbe job stressor-stress relations According to the interaction plot shown in Figure 2, nurses who are more committed to tbeir occupation in terms of emotional attacbment are Iikely to have stronger stress reactions to perceived contract breaches than nurses who are less committed However

,

since there is a significant and negative relationship between the occupational commitment and job stress (M lβ=-.33, p<.01;M2 β 詣 , p< .01), implying that a仔ection for an occupation plays a complicated role in job stress. That 時, although employees with high occupational commitment are less likely to experience job stress, these individuals are more sensitive to such type of job stressor once they start to feel stressed. Furthermore, the near tlat line for the low

(20)

20 Examil1il1g the Moderatil1g Ejjèct ofOccupatiol1al Commitmel1t 011 COl1tract Breach-Job Stress Relations

occupational commitment employees may implies a ceiling effect for these

individuals. Specifically

,

those individuals are so susceptible to perceived psychological contract breaches that a small amount of breaches can result in a high level of stress reactions. ln short, although affective occupational commitment related

negatively to job stress reactions, is insufficient for either diverting attention away from a stressful event or alleviating harm caused by an unsupportive work environment. This finding suppo口s the exacerbation (as opposed to buffering)

的sumption that cornmitment increases vulnerability (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984)

No such effect was found for continuance occupational commitment

,

suggesting that continuance occupational commitment based on cognitive assessments of costs and

benefits may not trigger the same level of emotions as affective occupational cornmitment

,

since individuals in the first category do not invest their emotions as much as those in the second

Results from our regression analyses failed to identi秒 a moderating effect for continuance occupational commitment on the stressor-stress relationship. Meyer and Allen's (1991) model posits that continuance cornmitment is based on calculations of costs and benefits. Our results show that employee responses to employer contract

breaches do not vary across

calculative" occupational comrnitments, thus suggesting a “detached" (rather than exacerbating or buffering) role for continuance occupational cornmitment. This conf1icts with Irving and Coleman's (2003) finding of an exacerbating effect of continuance organizational commitment on the stressor-stress relationship. The inconsistency may be due to a different focus of commitment-occupational versus organizational-in the two studies. The perceived cost of changing an occupation may be irrelevant to perceived psychological contract breaches, as showing in our result (r -.07, p > .05). Therefore, although continuance occupational commitment was positively related to job stress, it did not moderate the psychological contract breach 一 job stress relations. Moreover

,

both studies conducted the surveys with samples 企omonly one occupation (nurses in our sample, and govemment employees in lrving and Coleman's). We suggest performing

(21)

meta-ChiaoDα Management Review Vol. 31 No. 2, 2011 21

analysis or investigation in other occupations to see if more_consistent results can be

reached

Cappelli (1999) has suggested that since lifetime employment is no longer

guaranteed, employees are encouraged to turn their attention to professional

advancement outside their finns. Those who consider their occupation to be a good

investment may place more value on what tbe occupation provides than how the

organization treats them. Along the same lines, the stressor-stress relationship may

intensif扯 for persons with high levels of continuance organizational commitment because they lack viable alternatives to staying with tbeir current organizations. In

contrast

,

workers with strong continuance occupational commitments are not as

seriously affected by tbe stressor-stress relationship because they perceive themselves

as having alternatives

Althougb the data indicate that affective occupational commitment has an

exacerbating e仟ect on the stressor-stress relationship, it was negatively associated

with job stress. Our observed negative correlation between affective commitment and

job stress is consistent with results reported by Reilly (1994) and Irving and Coleman

(2003) on organizational commitment. Regardless the entities of commitment

,

we can

conclude that affective commitment is a beneficial factor to an organization when

employees perceive tbat they are being treated fairly or have a healthy work

environment. Contrari 旬, continuance commitment is positively associated with job

stress. This is not surprising because those who are high with continuance

commitment perceive less control over their environme帥, and are less likely to

remove themselves 台om stressful work situations (Coleman, Irving, and Cooper,

1999)

We acknowledge several limitations to this study. The cross-sectional design

limits its ability to provide causal inferences. Although occupational commitment is less likely to be influenced by social exchanges between employees and employers,

we cannot exclude the possibility that low occupational commitment may be a

(22)

22 Examining the Moderating ~伊ctofOccupational Commilment

on Conlracl Breach-Job Slress Relations

prefer to take a longitudinal approach to examine causal relationships between

constructs

Second, since all variables were measured in the same questionnaire, the

findings are susceptible to problems associated with common method variance-that is, results may be distorted due to correlation inflation. We therefore perfonned a Harman's one-factor test (Podsako缸~ MacKenzie, Lee and Podsakoff, 2003;

Podsakoff and Organ, 1986) by entering all items into a factor analysis and examining the resulting unrotated factor solution. Podsakoff and Organ (1986) observed that when a single factor emerges, or when one factor accounts for most of

the covariance in the predictor and criterion variables

,

a substantial comrnon method

variance exists. ln this study, all 27 items (6 for affective occupational comrnitment, 6 continual occupationa1 comrnitment, 4 psychological contract breach, and 11 job stress) were inc\uded in our principa1 component factor analysis. Using an eigenvalue of greater than one criterion, our ana1ysis identified six factors, with the first explaining 28 percent of the variance. No general factor was identified from the

unrotated factor solution. In other words, comrnon method variance was not a serious threat to our findings

According to Spector (2006)

,

for many constructs incumbent se1f-reports are more accurate than data obtained from altemative sources. Frese (1985) conc\uded that methodological artifacts do not easily explain correlations between the two selι reported subjective measures of stress and psychosomatic complaint. Frese and Zapf (1988) a1so reported that relationships among constructs in stress research tend to be underestimated when data are obtained from different sources. Since all of our constructs involved the subjective feelings or attitudes of employees, we believe that incumbent self-reports represent a more valid source of data than altemating sources Furthermore, some of our fmdings represent interaction effects. Since comrnon

method variance tends to uniform1y inflate corre1ations among self-report measures,

such statistical artifacts cannot be used to explain interaction effects suggesting that

(23)

ChiaoDaManα!gement Review Vol. 31 No. 2, 2011 23

and Jones, 2000). Finally, it is not uncommon for stress studies to use self-reported data given the nature ofthe constructs (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984). In fact, with the awareness of common method variance owing to the self-report method

,

Lazarus and Folkman (1984) endorse

to use purely sel仁reportdata to generate what appear to be stable findings leading to empirically based principles and then check out these principles with other methods (p. 323)." Since the role of occupational commitment in the relationship of psychological contract breaches and job stress has rarely been

examined, and we our study framework is theoretically driven, we think it is

reasonab1e to explore our research topic using a less costly approach while addressing the potential disadvantage of such approach. Combined

,

we believe these factors show that the common method variance should not post a major threat to the value of our findings. Still

,

a longitudinal research design would be a preferable approach for studying psychological contract breaches and job stress

lt should be noted that although the breach global measure used in this study is commonly found in psychological contract research, Zhao et al., (2007) have recently reported that the effect sizes of global measures are larger than those for composite measures for work-related outcomes. Since our results may be inflated due to our choice of measures, care should be taken in interpreting them. Future studies may

also use the composite measures as it al10ws the researchers to examine the

relationship between different aspect of psychological contract breach and job stress By doing so, we can examine ifthe moderating effect of occupational commitment is partially salient in the relationships of certain types of psychological contract breach and job stress

Finally, Becker (1992) has suggested that commitment researchers should make distinctions among foci and commitment bases. When examining“commitment as a factor in vulnerability" (as first proposed by Lazarus and Folkman

,

1984)

,

researchers need to take commitment complexity into account. Future researchers may wish to compare various commitment forms (e.g., value-based, obligation-based, or based on

(24)

24 Examining the Moderating Effect ofOccupational Commitment

on Contract Breach-Job Stress Relations

costlbenefit assessments) and foci (e.g., occupational or organizational) when mveshgatmg cormmtment lmpacts.

Our results have implications for managers and researchers alike. They suggest that employer-employee relationships may benefit from improvements during the job preview and recruitment stages in terms of helping employees gain a clear understanding of what they should expect from the jobs they are considering. Communicating mutual obligations during the early stages of employment can also reduce the potential for psychological contract breaches. The results also imply that affective occupational commitment has an exacerbating effect on employee stress Accordingly

,

managers need to give careful consideration to employees who are highly committed and attached to their occupations for affective reasons. These individuals are valuable to the organization because they are more likely to treat the occupation as a career or a calling rather than merely a job.

Researchers may be interested in examining stress outcome variables (e.g.

,

organizational citizenship behavior, job satisfaction, and the intention to quit) to determine the interactive effects of psychological contract breaches and occupational commltment on stress outcomes

7. References

Aiken, L. S. and West, S. G. (1991), Mult伊拉 Regression: T.的ting and Interpreting /nteractions, Newbury Park, CA: Sage

Anderson, J. C. and Gerbing, D. W. (1988),“Strucωral Equation Modeling in Practice: A Review and Recommended Two-Step Approach," Psychological Bulle帥, 103(3), 411-423

Antonovs旬,A. (1979), Health, Stress, and Copi嗯,San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass

Arthur, M. B. (1994),“The Boundaryless Career: A New Perspective for Organizational Inquiry," Journal ofOrganizational Behavi肘, 的 (4) ,295-306

(25)

Chiao Da Managemenl Reνiew Vol. 31 No. 2. 2011 25

Bakker, A.日,Schaufeli,W. B., Sixma, H. 1., Bosveld, W. and van Dierendonck, D. (2000),

“Patient Demands, Lack ofReciprocity, and Bumout: A Five Year Longitudinal Study

among General Practitioners," Journal ofOccupational Behavior, 21(4), 425-441

Baruch, Y. Holtom, B. C. (2008), “Survey Response Rate Levels and Trends in

Organizational Research," Human Relations, 61(8), 1139-1160

Becker, T. E. (1992), “Foci and Bases of Commitment: Are They Distinctions Worth

Making?" Academy of蜘nagementJournal, 35( 1), 232-244

Begley, T. M. and Czaj徊, J. M. (1993), “Panel Analysis of the Moderating Effects of

Comrnitment on Job Satisfaction, Intention to Quit, and Health Following

Organizational Change," Journa/ of Applied Psychology, 78(4), 552-556.

Benoliel, J. Q., McCorkle, R., Georgiadou, F., Denton, T. and Spitzer, A. (1990),

“Measurement of Stress in Clinical Nursing," Cancer Nursing, 13(4), 221-228

Blau, G. (2003),“Testing for a Four-Dimensional Structure of Occupational Commitment,"

Journal of OCC!仰tionaland Organizational Psychology, 76(4), 469-488 Blau, P. (1964), Exchange and Power in Socia/ L~舟,New York, NY: Wiley

Boswell, W. R., Olson-Buchanan, 1. B. and LePine, M. A. (2004),“Relations between Stress

and Work Outcomes: The Role of Felt Challenge, Job Control and Psychological

Strain," Journal of Vocational Behavior, 64(1), 165-181

Buunk, B. P., Doo司已 B. J. Jans, L. G. J. M. and Hopstaken, L. E. M. (1993),“Perceived

Reciprocity, Social Support, and Stress at Work: The Role of Exchange and

Comrnunal Orientation," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 的 (4), 801-811

Cappelli, P. M. (1999), The New Deal at Work: Managing the Market-Driven Wo呦帥,

Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press

Coleman, D. F., Irving, P. G. and Cooper, C. L. (1999),“Another Look at the Locus of

Control-0rganizational Commitment Relationsh中 It Depends on the Form of CommÍtment," Journal ofOrganizational Behavior, 20(6), 995-1001

(26)

26 Examining the Moderating Effect ofOccupational Commitment on Contract Breach-Job Stress Relations

Coyle-Shapiro, J. and Kessler, 1. (2002),“Exploring Reciprocity through the Lens of the

Psychological Contract: Employee and Employer Perspectives," European Journal

01

Work and Organizational Psychology, 11 (1). 69-86

Coyle-Shapiro, J. and Kessler, I. (2000),“Consequences of the Psychological Contract for

the Employment Relationship: A Large Scale Surv昧"Journal

01

Management Stud帥,

37(7),903-930

Elliot, A. J. and Devine, P. G. (1994),“On the Motivational Nature of Cognitive Dissonance

Dissonance as Psychological Discomfort," Journal

01

Personality and Social

Psychology,的 (3),382-394

Festinger, L. (1957), A Theory

01

Cognitive Dissonance, Stanford, CA: Stanford Universi秒

Press

Frese, M. (J 985),“Stress at Work and Psychosomatic Complaints: A Causal Interpretation,"

Journal

01

Applied Psychology, 70(2), 314-328

Fres巴, M. and Zapf, D. (1988), “Methodological Issues in the Study of Work Stress

Objective vs. Subjective Measurement of Work Stress and the Question of

Longitudinal Studi的," ln C. L. Cooper and R. Payne (Eds.), Causes, Coping and

Consequences ofStress at Work, 375-410

Fron 巴,M. R. (2000) ,“Inte中ersonalConflict at Work and Psychological Outcomes: Testing a

Model among Young Workers," Journal olOccupational Health Psychology, 5(2),

246-255

Gakovic, A. and Tetrick, L. E. (2003),“Psychological Contract Breach as a Source of Strain

for Employees," Journal

01

Business and Psychology, 18(2),235-246

Geurts, S. A., Buu叫c, A. P. and Schaufeli, W. B. (1994), “Health Complaints, Social

Comparisons and Absenteeism," Work and Stress, 8(3),220-234

Geu巾, S. A., Schaufeli, W. B. and Rutte, C. G. (1999),“Absenteeism, Tumover Intention

and Inequity in the Employment Relationship," Work and Stress, 13(3),253-267

Ho, V. 了, Weinga此, L. R. and Rousseau, D. M. (2004),“Responses to Broken Promises

(27)

Chiao Da Management Review Vol. 31 No. 2, 2011 27

Hochwarter丸,W. A., Per叮rewé,P. L., Fer叮rn昀s,G. R. and Guerciω0, R. (1999),

Antidote tωo t由he Te叩ns釗ion and Tumover Consequences of Or咚ga叩nIza剖tJωona叫1 PO叫litic叫s丸 Jour.月αalol V,均ocωatωtωonalBeha叩門 55(3),277-297

Irving, P. G., Coleman, D. F. and Cooper, C. L. (1997),“Further Assessments of a Three-Component Model of Occupational Commitment: Generalizability and Differences across Occupations," Journal

01

Applied Psychology, 82(3),444-452

lrving, P. G. and Coleman, D. F. (2003),“The Moderating Effect of Different Forms of Commitment on Role Ambiguity-Job Tension Relations," Canadian Journal

01

Administrative Sciences, 20(2), 97-106

Janssen, O. (2004), “The Barrier Effect of Conflict with Superiors in the Relationship

between Employee Empowerment and Organizational Commitment," Work and Stre呵, 18(I ), 56-65

Johnson, R. (1996), “Antecedents and Outcomes of Corporate Refocusing," Journal

01

Managemenl, 22(3), 439-483

Kobasa, S. C. (1982), “Commitment and Coping in S甘ess Resistance among Lawy帥

Journal

01

Personal妙。ndSocial Psych%gy, 42(4), 707-717

Lazarus, R. S. and Folkman, S. (1984), Slress, Appraisa/, and Coping, New York,N: Springer Lee, K., Carswell, J. J. and Allen, N. J. (2000),“A Meta-Analytic Review of Occupational Commitment: Relations with Person- and Work-Related Variables," Journal oj Applied Psychology,的 (5),799-811

Leong, C. S., Furnham, A. and Cooper, C. L. (1996), “The Moderating Effect of Organizational Commitment on the Occupational Stress Outcome Relationship," Human Relalions, 49(10), 1345-1363

Lester, S. W. and Kickul, J. (2001),“Psychological Contracts in the 21 st Century: What Employees Value Most and How Well Organizations are Responding to these

Expectations," Peop/e and Slralegy, 24( 1), 10-21

Masla仙, C., Schaufeli, W. B. and Leiter, M. P. (2001),“Job Burnout," Annual Review

01

(28)

28 Examining the Moderating Ejj全cfo/Occupational Commitment

on Contracf Breach-Job Stress Relations

Mathieu, J. E. and Zaj 此,D. M. (1990),“A Review and Meta-Analysis of the Anteceden的,

Correlates, and Consequences of Organizational Commitment," Psychological Bulletin, 108(2),171-194

McLean Parks, J. Kiddler, D. L., Gallagher, D. G. (1998),“Fitting Squares Pegs into Round Ho1es: Mapping the Domain ofContingent Work Arrangements onto the Psychological Contract," Journal ofOrganizational Beha叩門 19(specia1issue), 697-730

Meyer, J., P. and Allen, N. (1997),“Commitment in the Wor旬lace: Theory, Research and Application, " Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Meyer, J. P. and Allen, N. J. (1991), “A Three-Component Conceptualization of Organizational Commitment," Human Resource Management Review, 1(1),61-89 Meyer, J. P., Allen, N. J. and Smith, C. A. (1 99盯3),

Ocωcu叩I中pa仙tions: Ext紀ens剖ionand Test of a Th趾re仿e-Compon巴n削ltM叫ode吭1,"Journal of Applμied d

Psychology, 78(4), 538-551

Morrison, E. W. and Robinson, S. L. (1997),“When Employees Feel Betrayed: A Model of How Psychological Contract Violation Develops," Academy of Management Review, 22(1), 226-256

恥Mo叮ow,P. c. (ο198盯3), C

臼ommlt恤me削nt,"Academy of、λ岫必na嗯'ge帥mηle削F月川1叫tReview, 8(3),486-500

Niedhammer, 1. T仗,M. Starke, D. and Siegri剖,J. (2004),“Effort-Reward 1mbalance Model

and SelιReported HeaIth: Cross-Sectional and Prospective Findings from the GAZEL

Coho此,"Social Science and Medicine, 58(8), 1531-1541

Peter, R. and Siegrist, J. (叭1999) ,

Di臼se翎as吋e: The Role of Effort-Reward Imba1ance," Jnternational Journal of Law and

Psychiat吵,22(5-6) , 441-449

Pines, A. M. (1982),“Changing Organizations: Is a Work Environment without Bumout an Impossible Goal?" In W. S. Paine (Ed.), Job Stress and Burnout (pp. 189-212) Beverly HiIIs, CA: Sage.s

(29)

Chiao Da Management Review Vol. 31 No. 2. 2011 29

Ping, R. A. (1996), “1mproving the Detection of Interactions in Selling and Sa1es

Management Research," Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, 16(1),

53-64

Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzi巴, S. B., Lee, 1. Y. and Podsakoff, N. P. (2003),“Common

Method Biases in 8ehavioral Research: A Critical Review of the Literature and

Recommended Remedies," Journal ofApplied Psychology, 88(5), 879-903

Podsakoff, P. M. and Organ, D. W. (1986), “Self-Reports in Organizational Research

Problems and Prospects," Journal ofManagement, 12(4), 531-544

Raja, U., Johns, G. and Ntalianis, F. (2004),“The Impact of Personality on Psychological

Contracts," Academy of Management Journal, 47(3), 350-367.

Reilly, N. P. (1994), “Exploring a Paradox: Commitment as a Moderator of the Stress

Bumout Relationship," Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24(5), 397-414

Restubog, S. L. D., 80rd悶, P. and Tang, R. L. (2007), “Behavioural Outcomes of

Psychological Contract Breach in a Non-Western Culture: The Moderating Role of

Equity Sensitivi恥"British Journal of Management, 18(4), 376-386

Robinson, S. L. (1996),“Trust and Breach of the Psychological Contract," Administrati阿

Science Quarterly, 41(4) 574-599

Robinson, S. L. and Rousseau, D. M. (1994),“Violating the Psychological Contract; Not the

Exception 8ut the Norm," Journal ofOrganizational Behaνi肘,的 (3),245-256

Robinson, S. L. and Morrison, E. W. (2000),“The Development of Psychological Contract

Breach and Violation: A Longitudinal Study," Journal of Organizational Beh帥的几

21 (5), 525-546

Rousseau, D.M. (1989),“Psychological and lmplicit Contracts in Organizations," Employee

Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 2(2), 121-139

Rousseau, D. M. (1990), “New Hire Perceptions of Their Own and Their Employer's

Obligations: A Study of Psychological Contracts," Journal of Organizational Behavior,

(30)

30 Examining the Moderaling EjJecl olOccupalional Commilment on Contract Breach-Job Slress Relations

Rousseau, D. M. (2001),“Schema, Promise and Mutua1ity.The Bui1ding B10cks of the

Psycho10gica1 Contract," Journal 01 Occupalional and Organizalional Psychology,

74(4), 511-541

Schaubroeck, J. and Jones, J. R. (2000), “Antecedents of Workp1ace Emotiona1 Labor

Dimensions and Moderators of Their Effects on Physica1 Symptoms," Journal 01

Organizalional Behaνior, 21(specia1 issue), 163-183

Shore, L. M. and Tetrick, L. E. (1994),“The Psycho10gica1 Contract as an Exp1anatory

Framework in the Emp10yment Re1ationship," In C. L. Cooper and D. M. Rousseau

(Eds.), Trends in Organizalional Behaνior, 1,91-109

Siu, O. L. and Cooper, C. L. (1998),“A Study of Occupationa1 Stress, Job Satisfaction and

Quitting Intention in Hong Kong Firms: The Ro1e of Locus of Contro1 and

Organizationa1 Commitm酬,"Stress Medicine, 14(1),55-66

Snape, E. and Redman, T. (2003), “An Eva1uation of a Three-Component Mode1 of

Occupationa1 Commitment: Dimensionality and Consequences among United

Kingdom Human Resource Management Specia1ists," Journal 01 Applied Psychology,

88(1), 152-159

Spector, P. E. (2006), “Method Variance in Organizationa1 Research: Truth or Urban

Legend?" Organizational Research Metho品,9(2), 221-232

Spector, P. E. and Jex, S. M. (1998),“Deve10pment of Four Se1f-Report Measures of Job

S甘essorsand Strain: Interpersona1 Conf1ict at Work Sca1e, Organizationa1 Constraints

Sca1e, Quantitative Work10ad Inventory, and Physica1 Symptoms Inventory," Journal

ofOccupaliona/ Hea/lh Psych%gy, 3(4), 356-367

Tumer, R. J. (1981),“Socia1 Support as a Contingency in Psycho10gica1 Well-Being,"

Journa/ of Hea/lh and Social Behavior, 22(4), 357-367

Tum1ey, W. H. and Fe1dman, D. C. (1999), “The Impact of Psycho10gica1 Contract

Vio1ations on Exit, Voice, Loya1ty, and Neg1ect," Human Relalions, 52(7), 895-922

Vandenberg, R. J. and Scarpello, V. (1994),“A Longitudina1 Assessment of the Determinant

Re1ationship between Emp10yee Commitments to the Occupation and the

(31)

Chiao Da Managemenl Reνiew Vol. 31 No. 2, 2011 31

Zhao, H., Wayne, S. J., Glibkowsk.i, 8. C. and 8ravo, J. (2007), “The Impact of

Psychological Contract 8reach on Work-Related Outcomes: A Meta-Analysi丸"

數據

Figure 1  Research Framework

參考文獻

相關文件

The accuracy of a linear relationship is also explored, and the results in this article examine the effect of test characteristics (e.g., item locations and discrimination) and

Indeed, in our example the positive effect from higher term structure of credit default swap spreads on the mean numbers of defaults can be offset by a negative effect from

專案執 行團隊

There is no general formula for counting the number of transitive binary relations on A... The poset A in the above example is not

The numerical results of the stress distribution and the plastic deformation along the center line (interface) of the lateral plate show that the weight of the plate is reduced to

Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the hospitality students’ entrepreneurial intentions based on theory of planned behavior and also determine the moderating

In addition, the study found that mood, stress, leadership and decision-making will affect the employees’ job satisfaction1. In other words, those factors increasing or

This study is aimed to investigate the current status and correlative between job characteristics and job satisfaction for employees in the Irrigation Associations, by