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Professional Development and the Performance of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language in Taiwanese Cram Schools: A Study Based on the Self-Efficacy Model

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(1)Professional Development and the Performance of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language in Taiwanese Cram Schools: A Study Based on the Self-Efficacy Model. by Fryda Marcela Sales Bogle. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: Wei-Wen Chang, Ph.D.. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan June, 2015.

(2) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to thank all the people who made this possible, and who helped me to get this far in my education. There is plenty of people who I would mention and perhaps some names will not be on paper, but they will surely be forever in my heart all your help was incredible valuable to me. First of all I would like to thank God for giving me the opportunity to accomplish this personal dream that I have had since a very long time, during this two years He has been my source of strength, happiness, hope and basically everything I need to make this possible. I could not have made it without Him. I can say “His plans are for good and not for bad, to give us hope and a prosper future” Jer.2911. Also, my lovely family, thanks for always believing on me, no matter how it difficult life can get, or how many trials appear along the way in the pursuit of my dreams : mom (Zucchy Bogle) you have always been my support and I want to let you know that everything I do is to make you proud, because you are the one who believed on me, you fought for me all these years, and you did your best to provide all I have needed and give me a good life, achieving this master degree is a way to pay you back all that you have done for me : I love you with all my heart! To Iveth: My older sister who since 2009 we are not together anymore, I know you are watching from heaven and smiling because your little sister made you proud one more time. Living my life remembering you and doing my best while I am here in the world is something that I learned from you and of course helped a lot me during this two years in Taiwan. Felix and Carlos Antonio: Thanks for your support when I needed, I am happy to have you in my life. And my Father: Felix Sales, for teaching me that education is very important in life and the only thing that can take us far in life. My dear advisor Dr. Chang: your kindness, love and guidance which is something that I will never forget, and I told you this before, you are a very special professor and in the future I would like to be as good as you are ( I know it will be super difficult hehehe) and specifically I want to have the patience you have at work!! Well, also your dedication at work, those are aspects that definitely I want to practice and be more like you. Thanks for your guidance on my thesis, and for believing on me all these years. You will always be in my heart. To all my professors from the IHRD program: Dr. Lin, Dr. Yeh, Dr. Lai, Dr. Tony thanks for teaching me many important things for my future career. I will always remember what I learn in your classes and for sure I will apply them in life. To ICDF : Dr. Pai-Po Lee allowing me to come to Taiwan to study was one of the best opportunities in my life. Kate and Tracy: your help and patience is highly appreciated to me, I know sometimes I might ask many things but you were always willing to help, which I really appreciate it. My friends : Sofana, Janell, Lahela, Warissa, and Irina, you girls are the ones who make this part sad because I know accomplishing this dream means also leaving Taiwan, but I want to remind you that you will always have a friend on me, and I will never forget you because all of.

(3) you made my days better, and happier. All my drama, and crisis were even funny because all of you! Graduate school is always complicated and difficult but having good friends like all of you are for me make things more easy. In the future we might be in different countries but surely you all will be in my heart forever. To my classmates in the IHRD program, you taught me so many things : team work, to break stereotypes and accept others the way they are. Finally to my friends in church at GBC, a very important aspect in my life in Taiwan, because when my faith was going down, you all were the ones who helped me to lift it up! May God bless you more and more! And remember: Go and chase your dreams, and never ever give up!.

(4) ABSTRACT The world is becoming a “global village”, where regarding the cultural differences we still need to communicate among each other. Finding a common language to communicate is vital, therefore more and more people are learning English, which is considered one of the main global languages. In non-English speaking regions such as Asia efforts are done in order to motivate their citizens in the acquisition of this language, specifically in Taiwan R.O.C. In Taiwan, more EFL Teachers are needed in order to fulfill the demand of the people interested in to learn the language. Cram schools in Taiwan are encouraged to foster professional development experiences to their staff and moreover including self-efficacy within these experiences. Professional development for teachers includes: formal learning and informal learning. Basing professional development on the self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977) provides great insights for educators, because permits them to find the sources to boost their confidence, enhance their instructional practices and commit to the organization where they work. In this qualitative research 24 EFL teachers who work in cram schools in Taiwan were interviewed, transcripts of the interview and coding was done to learn more about the experiences in professional development and self-efficacy for teachers in Taiwan. In the construction of professional development including self-efficacy sources: work experience and feedback from superiors and students, were main findings in this research. Keywords: EFL Teachers, Performance, Professional Development, Selfefficacy.. I.

(5) TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ...........................................................1 Background of the Study ...................................................................................1 Statement of the Problem ........................................................................... .......3 Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................4 Purpose of the Study ..........................................................................................7 Questions of the Study .......................................................................................8 Significance of the Study ...................................................................................8 Definition of Terms ............................................................................................8. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ...............................................11 Professional Development for Teachers ............................................................11 Teachers’ Performance ......................................................................................18 Self-efficacy Theory and its Influence on Performance ....................................22 Summary ............................................................................................................25. CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN ...................................................27 Research Approach.............................................................................................27 Research Framework .........................................................................................27 Sample and Participant Selection……………………………………………...28 Data Collection ..................................................................................................32 Data Analysis .....................................................................................................35 Example of Interview Analysis………………………………………………...36 Research Procedure ............................................................................................41 Transferability ....................................................................................................41 Dependability (Reliability) .................................................................................41 Validity ...............................................................................................................43. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ..................................44 Professional Development for EFL Teachers ...................................................44 Professional Development: Formal Learning………………………………….45 Professional Development: Informal Learning………………………………..50 Perceived Outcomes from Formal and Informal Learning: Experiences for EFL Teachers in Taiwan..........................................................56. II.

(6) The Influence of Professional Development on Teachers’ Performance: Strategies Learned from Teaching Performance .......60 Discussion ..........................................................................................................65. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ......................68 Conclusions ........................................................................................................68 Implications.........................................................................................................71 Suggestions ........................................................................................................73 Limitations.. .......................................................................................................74. REFERENCES .......................................................................................75 APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW INSTRUMENT ......................................82 APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRE .......................................................83 APPENDIX C: CONSENT LETTER .....................................................85. III.

(7) LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Different Approaches for Classroom Management ....................................20 Table 2.2 Different Methods for Instructional Strategies ...........................................21 Table 3.1 Background Information of Interviewed Participants ................................30 Table 3.2 Data Collection Process ..............................................................................35 Table 3.3 Example of code assignation process..........................................................40 Table 4.1 Formal Learning Practices Experienced by EFL Teachers Working in Taiwanese Cram Schools .............................................................................................45 Table 4.2 Informal Learning Practices Experienced by EFL Teachers Working in Taiwanese Cram Schools .............................................................................................50 Table 4.3 Outcomes of Professional Development for EFL Teachers Working in Taiwanese Cram Schools ..........................................................56 Table 4.4 The Influence of Professional Development Teachers’ performance .........60. IV.

(8) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1 The research framework ............................................................................28 Figure 3.2 Example of initial stage in coding. ............................................................37 Figure 3.3 Open coding stage (assigning codes to key words and sentences)……......38 Figure 3.4 The research procedure of the study ..........................................................42. V.

(9) CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The first chapter provides an overall understanding of this study. It contains: a background of the research study, theoretical framework, the importance and problem statement, objectives of the study, research questions and significance. Also definitions of the important terms used in this study.. Background of the Study The twentieth century has been called “the age of communication”. Globalization is increasing rapidly. Thus, speaking English has become important as it is considered one of the great world languages (Wallace, 1991). According to the website “The statistical Portal”, around 1,500 million people speak English worldwide and only 375 million are native speakers (The statistical portal, 2014). In fact, the English language is becoming more common nowadays and learning English goes beyond academic purposes. For instance, we read books, listen to music, do business, and interact with people from foreign countries, where, although English is not the first language, it is the common language we use to communicate. Globalization gives us the possibility to study and work anywhere in the world, with the only requirement of being able to speak English and communicate in a professional manner. In non-English speaking countries, specifically in Asian countries the Government is generating new educative plans to motivate their citizens to learn English, and an example of these countries is Taiwan ROC. The Taiwanese Government is taking action to improve the English ability of its citizens making reforms to their curricula (Wang, 2008). The academic demand Taiwanese students ‘face in their schools is high: test-oriented pedagogy, high pressure in examinations, and competition among students. All these aspects together are pulling factors for Taiwanese students to get enrolled in the different supplementary schools, short-term, cram schools, or also known as ‘buxibans’ across the country. In fact, cram schools are now very attached to the culture and life style of Taiwanese people. According to the short term tutorial information management system, in their website http://bsb.edu.tw/ their statistics show that in the last ten years (from 2006-2015) the number of cram school has increased from 3261 to 4848. The increasing of cram schools in Taiwan is steady, in fact cram schools are considered now a trend in the business industry in the country.. 1.

(10) For some this even can be seen as a business venture, and a very profitable one (De La Cruz-Yeh, 2011). However, cram schools have also the mission of preparing the students for language tests, and to make kids more academically competitive. Whether the reasons to open a cram school are, more EFL teachers are needed. Furthermore, acquiring and retaining efficient EFL teachers, that possess the characteristics that are crucial to perform adequately becomes fundamental. And these observations, lead us to the importance of professional development for teachers, working in cram schools. EFL teachers working in cram schools experience a number of activities in the construction of their professional development. These experiences include: formal learning and informal learning activities. One important and often practiced activity within formal learning is training. This activity, enables and aligns EFL teachers with the requisites established by the educative authorities. In Taiwan EFL teachers who are native English speakers (NES), are requested to have the TESOL or TEFL certification. On the other hand, Taiwanese locals, who pursuit to work as teachers need to pass a proficiency exam, 360 hours of training, and 40 credits provided by an university in Taiwan. Although these requirements are for working in public schools, these are not required for working in cram schools, since the hiring process is more flexible (De La Cruz Yeh, 2011). Another aspect of professional development is informal learning, this type of learning is produced in a wide range of situations, most of the time the teacher is not even aware that learning is occurring, does not have any monetary cost and can be produced within the workplace among colleagues. Within the activities of informal learning we can mention: selfawareness, self-observation (Bailey, Curtis, & Nunan, 2001), teaching journals, action research (Cohen & Manion, 1985) and self-learning. The importance of professional development lies on the teaching performance rather than the mere acquisition of knowledge. Since the majority of EFL the teachers in Taiwan are foreigners who have a bachelor in majors different than education or literature, generating professional development experiences for these EFL teachers, in the work place becomes fundamental. These experiences of professional development should aim to influence teachers ‘performance. Regarding teaching performance, this study wants to examine more in depth how this is demonstrated in three specific areas. These three dimensions were established by Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) . Classroom management: how the teacher controls the class.. 2.

(11) . Students’ engagement: the actions that the teacher takes to engage his or her students in the class.. . Instructional strategies: the methodology used to teach English to his or her students. The three dimensions previously mentioned, serve also as indicators of teachers’ self-. efficacy. In fact, another important aspect in this research was self-efficacy. Self-efficacy was included in this study because of the importance that has in the teachers’ motivations to work. The precursor of the self-efficacy theory was, Bandura (1977), and after his research, many other research has come after. Self-efficacy is the capability to believe in oneself and to accomplish determined tasks successfully, especially influence their students learning outcomes (Bandura, 1977; Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk-Hoy & Hoy, 1998). Self-efficacy for teachers is associated to the belief that a teacher can take teaching risks (Pendergast, Garvis, & Keogh, 2011). According to Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001), the theory of self-efficacy itself offers important contributions for educators, and researchers, at the same time help us to grasp how the construction of teachers’ self-efficacy has tremendous benefits for teachers in their teaching performance. EFL teachers working in Taiwanese cram schools, as mentioned before, due the fact that they have to deal with students who are exposed to high academic pressure, and also competition among classmates, it is necessary to learn from them what educative strategies they implement to help their students in the acquisition of a second language. In order to do this we need to understand first, the process of how teachers acquire their teaching knowledge (experiences) and whether this experiences include or not self-efficacy sources, to finally relate this with their teaching performance (perceived outcomes). Therefore, this study aimed to understand the different activities experienced for EFL teachers in the construction of their professional development: informal and formal learning experiences. And its influence in teaching performance reflecting self-efficacy.. Statement of the Problem According to the following statistics, teaching is not an easy task. Apparently, 50% of teachers leave the profession within the first 5 years. In the United States a total of 47,700 teachers left their jobs in 2011(as cited in Didau, 2013). The NASUWT survey in UK showed that 84% of teachers felt demoralized and deprofessionalized (Didau, 2013). In 2010 statistics revealed that over 404,600 fully trained teachers under the age of 60 were no longer teaching (Garner, 2010). This same article also added that thousands of new teachers are trained every 3.

(12) year, and many of them leave within a few years of becoming qualified. In 2006, in a survey of Pre-K through 12th grade teachers conducted by the American Psychological Association (APA), teachers identified classroom management and instruction skills as top priorities for trainings. Discipline is one of the most serious obstacles for teachers (APA, 2006). Learning from teachers and listening to their stories will permit us to understand how they construct their professional development, what the perceived outcomes of the same are, and how when including self-efficacy within professional development this one is demonstrated in their daily performance.. Theoretical Framework This research was based in the self-efficacy theory and teachers’ professional development, these aspects can be found in the social learning theory provided by Bandura (1977). Through this theory we can learn how teachers learn and also how they construct their efficacy. Thus, in this dissertation the first aspect of the theoretical framework is self-efficacy. It is explained the sources of self-efficacy, the reflection of the same in teachers’ performance and finally how self-efficacy sources can be found in the different experiences that construct the professional development. The second aspect includes a brief mention of the activities for professional development of teachers, the way they learn and this also following the line from the social learning theory. Self-efficacy literature explains that the main source of information about it is the social cognitive theory from Bandura. After he published his article, Self-efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavior Change (1977), large amounts of studies and literature has followed it (Capa, 2005 as cited in Abu-Tineh, Khasawneh, & Khalaileh, 2011). Self-efficacy is defined as the belief that a person has in his or her own capabilities to be able to perform certain tasks (Bandura, 1977), “self-efficacy determines how much effort a person will devote to an activity whether this activity is difficult or threatening, and how long they will persist in a task even when this is full of obstacles” (Bandura, 1977, p. 194). According to Bandura (1977), when people are given appropriate skills and adequate incentives, their efficacy expectations are determinants of the activities they choose and how much effort they put in them (p. 194). Thus, it is necessary to pay attention to what are the experiences that teachers are exposed in their work place and daily life for increasing their selfefficacy. There are four sources of self-efficacy: mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion and emotional and physical states. 4.

(13) Sources of self-efficacy Mastery experiences. According to Bandura (1977), this a very influential source because it is based in the success or failure acquired from experiences. This concept is defined by the word: experience, which states that after repeating certain tasks the individual has a better idea of how to perform in that specific task. At the same time to mastery experiences is attributed resilience that is to persevere in the task no matter the difficulty of it (Bandura 1977 as cited in Estrada, 2013). When teachers master certain tasks they feel more confident in their daily performance, citing Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (1998) said: “The perception that a performance has been successful raises efficacy beliefs, which contributes to the expectation that performance will be proficient in the future. The perception that one’s performance has been a failure lowers efficacy beliefs, which contributes to the expectation that future performance will also be inept” (p. 211). Thus, teachers are strongly influenced by their previous experiences, and the performance on those experiences. Vicarious experiences. “Seeing others perform threatening activities without adverse consequences can generate expectations in observers that they too will improve if they intensify and persist in their efforts” (Bandura, 1977, p. 197). That is, teachers learn new skills by seeing others. However is important to keep in mind that the modeling behavior presented or observed should have tangible outcomes. Seeing other people success in a task generates a sense of confidence in the observer that he or she can also success in the same task. Verbal persuasion. “Verbal persuasion permits to improve the beliefs and increase the level of selfperception, besides, efficacy can be increased when others believe in our capabilities” (as cited in Estrada, 2013, p. 22). Feedback coming from supervisors and colleagues and even students, is an example of verbal persuasion, and although is considered that this source alone is not so strong as the others, in fact a persuasive comment or feedback can help teachers to succeed (Bandura, 1986 as cited in Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk-Hoy & Hoy, 1998).. 5.

(14) Physical states. All the emotions and physical responses from the body, when a person is developing a difficult or challenging task.. Indicators of Self-efficacy for EFL Teachers Among all the reasons why this theory has become a trend in the past years is the fact that behavior may be predicted by studying self-efficacy. In addition, a teachers’ sense of self efficacy is considered a predictor of productive teaching practices (Abu-Tineh et al, 2011) Teacher’s self-efficacy empowers EFL teachers to manage classroom effectively (Chacon, 2005). It also brings didactic innovation to the classroom and adequate teaching methods to encourage students (Cousins & Walker, 1995; Guskey, 1998). Hence, this theory provides guidelines to teachers’ instructional behaviors. More contributions to self-efficacy from other researchers, Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2007) said the relation of teacher's expectations, the level of effort they put into preparation and delivery of instructions, their perseverance, commitment to work and confidence in their teaching practices are all associated with teachers’ self-efficacy. Thus, teachers’ selfefficacy plays a fundamental role in motivating teacher's to continue doing their work every day with excellence, and to overcome the obstacles presented in the teaching practice. Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (1998), also added: “teachers with strong sense of self-efficacy are open to new ideas and more willing to experiment with new methods to better meet the needs of their students” (p. 223).. Self-efficacy and Professional Development of EFL Teachers In this dissertation, the researcher based on the theory of social learning, and selfefficacy provided by Bandura (1977- 1997) besides, posterior contributions provided by Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (1998, 2007) serve as a framework for this research, specifically the ways in how teachers learn and construct their professional development, also whether in the construction of their professional development sources of self-efficacy are included and demonstrated in their daily performance. Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (1998), found that teachers with more experience and with higher levels of education demonstrate strong self-efficacy. Working experience can be placed in informal learning, and formal education can be placed in formal learning, both aspects are 6.

(15) part of the professional development of teachers. Indeed self-efficacy sources can be found in professional development for teachers, “verbal persuasion in the form on professional development workshops, can provide provisional boost in teacher efficacy: however, if persuasion is not accompanied by the development of new skills that improve performance the impact may be fleeting” (Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk-Hoy & Hoy, 1998, p. 238). Also added that when teachers have the opportunity to participate in role play experiences with feedback from these experiences, teachers’ efficacy can be more impacted, because they are directly working with the mastery experiences. Support trainings and other activities in the workplace should increase the four sources of self-efficacy to support the teachers’ efficacy beliefs (Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk-Hoy & Hoy, 1998). Regarding the same aspect of professional development for teachers it is also said that teachers at the beginning of their careers observe other teachers and copy some of the experienced teachers’ practices (Lortie, 2002 as cited in Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001) Professional development for teachers includes several practices that are formal: training and teaching certifications and informal which are: observation, feedback, sharing experiences, and self-learning to mention some of them. Then, having mentioned the two essential aspects of this dissertation the researcher is interested in gain a deeper knowledge of how these two aspects work together and are reflected in teachers’ performance for EFL teachers working in Taiwanese cram schools.. Purposes of the Study 1. To identify the different activities within formal and informal learning that construct the professional development of EFL teachers in Taiwan. 2. To learn the perceived outcomes of formal and informal learning experiences for EFL teachers in Taiwan. 3. To describe the influence of professional development on teaching’ performance, reflecting self-efficacy, specifically in three main dimensions: classroom management, instructional practices and students’ engagement.. 7.

(16) Questions of the Study 1. What are the different formal and informal learning activities that EFL teachers in Taiwan experience to enhance their professional development? 2. How do teachers perceive the outcomes of formal and informal learning activities experienced in their professional development? 3. How does teachers’ professional development influence their teaching’ performance, reflecting self-efficacy, specifically demonstrated in the three dimensions: classroom management, instructional practices, and students’ engagement?. Significance of the Study First, this study attempted to respond questions such as the experiences that EFL teachers in Taiwan have been exposed to in their professional development, the perceived outcomes of professional development experiences for EFL teachers, and how professional development influences teaching performance within the classroom specifically : classroom management, student engagement, and instructional strategies (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). Learning about these aspects, permitted to inform supervisors from cram schools to value the importance of professional development in their staff because of its reflection in teachers’ performance. Second, this study attempted to inform EFL supervisors in cram schools about the perceived outcomes of professional development, and the current professional development experiences that EFL teachers in Taiwan are exposed in the different cram schools in Taiwan or even previous experiences within their countries of origin. Third, to inform training designers about the process of professional development for EFL teachers, and the impact of the same in teachers’ performance. Fourth, to contribute to the research field adding a little to what is known about professional development in Taiwan, sense of self efficacy, and their teaching performance reflecting self-efficacy.. Definition of Terms The following terms are defined according to their usage in the study:. 8.

(17) Professional Development for Teachers This is considered as a vital aspect to increase teachers’ knowledge and enhance teaching skills in order to apply it in their teaching practices (Smith & O’Day, 1991 as cited in Desimone, Porter, Garet, Kwan, & Birman, 2002).. Formal Learning Is planned learning that derives from activities within a structured learning setting. (Malcolm, Hodkinson, & Colley, 2003).. Training Professional preparation of teachers, usually through formal course work and practice teaching, provides credits and diploma of participation to the participants.. Informal Learning This type of learning does not have a prescribed learning framework, the presence of a designed teacher or trainer, an award, qualification or credit that demonstrate the learning acquired. Usually the teacher decides what to learn in order to immediately apply it at work (Cross, 2007).. Teachers’ Performance In this research teaching performance will be defined using the three following dimensions provided by Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (1998) in their study of teachers’ sense of self-efficacy: Students Engagement. Refers to the degree of attention, curiosity, interest, optimism and passion that students shown when they are learning or being taught Classroom Management. The expression of how the teacher and students work together to make learning happen Instructional Strategies. Instructional strategies include all approaches that a teacher may take to actively engage students in learning. Teachers’ Self-efficacy The belief a teacher has in his or her capacity to performance successfully in different tasks and scenarios (Bandura, 1977-1997) Three of the four sources of self-efficacy proposed by Bandura (1977), are studied in this research:. 9.

(18) Mastery Experiences. The source also known as mastery experience has been identified as one of the most powerful sources of efficacy information (Bandura, 1977). Vicarious Experiences. According to Bandura (1977), this is when observing others success in a determine task, the observer feels more capable to success as well, the same principle applies for failure in the task Verbal Persuasion. Social persuasion can contribute to the success achieved through corrective performance also considered feedback (Bandura, 1997) Physical States. The responses of the body or reactions when performing a determined challenging task. EFL Teacher: a person who teaches English as a foreign language in non-English speaking countries.. 10.

(19) CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter begins by giving a description of the actions for development of staff, specifically formal training, including teaching certifications and degrees. Informal learning within the workplace is also included. Finally aspects regarding the influence of self-efficacy on performance are included.. Professional Development for Teachers In last years, teachers have been exposed to different activities in order to enhance their professional development, this with the finality to carry out the demands of education in the present time. Teachers are encouraged to be engaged to perform adequately and to improve themselves constantly. Another important aspect is that within the work place teachers are requested to practice active learning where discussing with other teachers, planning and practicing becomes essential, and where observing other teachers in action is something normal and helpful to teachers to learn new practices (Desimone et al, 2002). In fact, EFL teachers are exposed to several activities in order to enhance their professional development, these activities are from formal learning and informal learning. Formal learning includes: training and educative programs such as maters and bachelor’s degree in education (resource centers, and conference and college courses). On the other hand informal learning, includes activities such as: self-learning among colleagues, sharing experiences, and unscheduled meetings. Other activities experienced for teachers are: mentoring, and teacher networks. In the teaching field after some surveys and consensus for teachers, some researchers have said that “high quality” professional development should include particular aspects or education that focus in the following areas: ‘how the students learn, active learning, teachers’ leadership, and team work (Desimone et al, 2002). Professional development, and more specifically informal learning, has certain characteristics, for example this type of learning is considered more experimental, and includes reflection and constant action (Marsick, 1999). In previous research, teachers mentioned the certificates acquired in educative institutions are very useful for them. In fact, EFL teachers consider these kind of learning experiences positive, in the construction of their professional development. Formal learning is associated with the participation in summer institutes, where teachers enjoy and work in 11.

(20) formulating new ideas, also have the chance to participate in hands-on experiences. In these training experiences teachers had the chance to apply and practice what they learned, instead of only listening to someone give them a lecture about teaching (Little, 1993). Little (1993), also mentioned that professional development regardless formal or informal, offers 6 principles that should be analyzed more in detail by researchers: 1. Professional development offers meaningful intellectual, social, and emotional ideas with colleagues in and out of teaching: teachers are activate learners who go beyond “hands-on” experiences. 2. Professional development pays special attention to the teachers’ environment and working experience: Professional development is something flexible and adaptable to the teachers’ reality. Teachers of English work in different contexts, countries and have different cultural backgrounds. 3. Professional development generates fellowship among teachers and commitment to the institution. Specifically informal learning which includes sharing knowledge among colleagues. 4. Professional development places classroom practice as a vital experience: teachers who are enrolled in schools or academic centers are encouraged to have a sort of classroom practice. 5. Professional development prepares teachers to apply the techniques learned: the whole purpose of acquiring information is to be able to share it and apply it in a daily basis. 6. Professional development is often associated with the interest of institutions and teachers to learn (Little, p.138-139). Finally, there are other activities included within the professional development of EFL teachers, these activities, are mostly related with the interaction among colleagues, and are often practiced within the work place. To mention three of these practices are: intern visitation and peer networks, through this practice teachers can visit other locations and see other teachers in action, besides they can expand their network. The second activity is, observation from supervisors: teachers are observed from time to time, while teaching and provided posterior feedback. And lastly off-site training is mentioned, that is: teachers go on a trip to other location. 12.

(21) and receive a short-term training, this is one practice is common for teachers in America (Elmore & Burney, 1996). Professional Development, for EFL teachers provides a number of positive benefits, in fact teachers feel that professional development enables them to teach more confidently and more efficiently. This could be a reason why teachers are very interested in keep updating their knowledge through professional development practices. Richards and Farrell (2005), in their publication “professional development for Language teachers” (p.9-10) mentioned some important areas of professional development for EFL teachers. These are briefly mentioned below: Subject matter knowledge : in this area can be mentioned, TESOL certification, and other knowledge that enables teachers to enhance their grammar, phonetics, teaching, and other skills required to work as an EFL teacher. Pedagogical expertise: which is the development of skills for teaching in different contexts and with different kind of students. Self-awareness: to permit the teacher to know his or her weaknesses and strengths, and works to improve himself or herself. Understanding of learners: knowledge of the different ways in which students learn English. Understanding of curriculum and materials: learning how does curriculum works and how materials are used in the teaching of contents in the class. Career advancement: the knowledge that enables teacher to advance professionally. All the mentioned aspects, are the different areas for professional development of EFL teachers, and paying a lot of attention to these aspects permits to the teachers to know in which specific areas to work on, to improve themselves.. Formal Learning In recent years, a repeated theme in the language teaching sphere is the need for ongoing teacher education. Specifically, experiences for in-service trainings are crucial for the teachers’ development, and for the long-term success at work (Richards & Farrell, 2005). On this research when we refer to formal training, it includes all the educative aspects for teachers. 13.

(22) that will permit them to acquire a specific number of credits, diploma, or any other document to prove a training was received within a specific number of hours or time. Formal training is received within the bachelor and master programs in education, or teaching certifications such as TEFL and TESOL. EFL teachers are encouraged to receive a pre-service training to learn the basic tasks for the occupational roles that they will perform within the cram school. The importance of this kind of training, as mentioned before, is that instructs the teacher regarding the curricula, and administrative aspects of the educative institutions, and helps them to adjust well, in the new working environment. Whenever during the in-service period changes in the curricula or new practices or teaching methodologies occur, then in- service training is required. Training involves applying new practices while being assessed by a supervisor or coordinator. After the observing the teachers’ performance during the training, objective comments are provided to the teacher to produce certain positive changes in their actions. Richards and Farrell (2005), provide some goals from a training perspective. Below three of them are mentioned, and considered fundamental for every English teacher for daily use:. . Learning how to use effective strategies in teaching practices.. . Adapting the text book to match with the reality or current situation of the students.. . Learning how to use group activities in a lesson (Richards & Farrell, 2005, p.5).. Moreover, trainings have been developed in Taiwan for many years. One example of these is the training to implement the use of information and communication technology (ICT training). The project: “Establishing ICT Literacy Standards for Primary and Secondary Teachers”, for all pre-service primary and secondary teachers, was implemented with the purpose of enhancing teaching skills by using: ICT instructional planning, teaching assessment and classroom management. By the end of 2011, it was expected 90% of the teachers would have implemented these practices (MOE, 2008 as cited in Chang, Chien, Chang, & Lin, 2012). The mentioned training, despite being an example of pre-service training, and not specifically for teachers of teachers of English as foreign language, permits us to know one of the many trainings developed in Taiwan within the formal learning education for EFL Teachers. In-service training, is sometimes a delicate issue because the programs and activities implemented and the delivery of the same must be directly focused to influence the 14.

(23) performance of the English teachers, these goals are set by the Ministry of Education in the respective country of service, the educative organization and even the teacher himself or herself. Again, putting a lot of attention and being detail oriented in the development of the training is important to guarantee the efficiency of the same. Another example from formal trainings developed in Taiwan is the in-service training where the researcher Wang (2008), participated and shared the experience in the dissertation “Teaching English to Young Learners in Taiwan: Issues Relating to Teaching, Teacher education, Teacher Materials and Teacher perspectives” he interviewed 25 teachers who attended to a four month in service training in Kaohsiung designed for teachers in primary schools. Wang (2008), wrote:. None of them believed that their understanding of language teaching methodology was sufficient at the beginning of the training program. All of them noted that the lessons they observed as part of their training program were pointless and that the teaching materials were often unsuitable and, or used inappropriately. (p. 3). The experience previously mentioned differs in the idea of training which for some authors involves presenting and modeling skills, and also enabling the teachers with situations where they can perform and enhance the skills acquired (Richards & Farrell, 2005). Because of its impact, training can be considered an activity to enhance the professional development of EFL teachers. The importance that teachers assign to including training as the activities for their professional development may vary from person to person. However training will always provide a good number of benefits for teachers and cram schools. Among the benefits for both English teachers and educative organizations can be mentioned: increase the motivation of the teachers who participate in the training, and in the application of the same in their daily work activities. More concrete benefits from training are: expertise, subject matter knowledge, understand programs and curriculum, and career advancement. For the educative organization among its benefits can be found: Institutional development, career development and enhancing the level of students learning (Richards & Farrell, 2005).. 15.

(24) Informal Learning in Teachers’ Education Research about informal learning has been constantly increasing in the last years (Marks, 1999). Informal learning is usually associated with the learning produced by the interaction with work colleagues, friends, and even everyday experiences. This also involves every aspect within the person, and is not only related to activities but communities as well. This means the person is a participant, someone who is involved in the daily activities and procedures, to enhance their knowledge and mastery of the same (Lave & Wenger, 1991, as cited in Smith, 1999). Informal learning, is then, activities experienced by people who want to develop some professional knowledge or skills first motivated by some situation in their workplace (Coffer, 2000; Lohman, 2000, as cited in Loham, 2006). Examples of often activities practiced by teachers in elementary schools are: talking with other teachers, observing other teachers while teaching a class, scanning professional magazines and journals, share materials and resources, and trial and error reflecting actions (Lohman, 2006). Informal learning, can also be acquired in common situations within the work place, for example when there are changes in the staff, when there is a new design for the lesson plans, and when there is the necessity to implement a new activity and the in-service teacher does not have any experience at all. Although these aspects remind us somehow of a necessity for training, in the case when informal learning occurs, as mentioned before not any accreditation or diploma will be provided. Only the necessary knowledge to be applied for a specific situation. Therefore, this learning is often considered unplanned (Eraut, 2004). And unplanned, because it is produced from the necessity to perform according to the expectations of supervisors, students and even the teacher himself - herself. In the process of acquiring the new learning, interaction with colleagues, friends, and experts occurred, and most of the time, when the new learning was acquired thorough a casual conversation, the final outcome was the solution of a particular issue. To all the previously mentioned, it can be added that informal learning in some cases includes self-instruction (Shank, 2013). Self-instruction is a very effective strategy, because teachers focus only on what they really want and need to learn (Mocker & Spear, 1982). Besides, with the increase in the use of the internet, self-learning is becoming popular, for instance, there are universities that offer course materials to those who are not their students and are prepared on the basis of selfdirected principles (Project Easy, 2014).. 16.

(25) Within the workplace, informal learning occurs when a teacher asks for help or advice from other expert teachers and peers. Besides this, the simple act of communicating with each other, having meetings to discuss issues from school, and even those unscheduled meetings that occur in-between the work routine and breaks, are aspects that generate informal learning. Informal learning is a continuous process and includes the following aspects:. . Implicit: which defined is ‘the acquisition of knowledge independently of conscious attempts to learn, and in the absence of explicit knowledge about what was taught (Reber, 1993).. . Unintended: Teachers are not enrolled in specific formal training programs within the educative organization, but they are just interested into learn new strategies or solutions to solve presented challenges and unknown situations within the work place.. . Opportunistic: informal learning has many probabilities to occur, due the capacity to take place in pretty much any activity. This could be: through observation, a quick explanation from a colleague, from reading an article from a journal, and any source who permits to close the gap between the lack of knowledge and performing.. . Unstructured: informal learning does not have a syllabus or structure of the same, therefore the one interested in gaining the knowledge is the one who goes through it.. . Absence of a teacher: Because this kind of learning is not taught in an institution or academy and does not provide any diploma, the absence of teachers means there is no specific person hired to coach or mentor the teachers’ staff in the learning of a specific skill or knowledge required.. Because of the importance of formal learning and informal learning, these experiences and activities for the EFL teachers’ within educative organizations should be provided, this benefits not only EFL teachers but also the school, through the performance of the teachers (Richards & Farrell, 2005). Besides, promoting teachers learning for their professional development should include both formal training and informal learning. At the same time formal learning and informal learning could be seen as a complex activity which focuses on the nature of the teachers’ beliefs and thinking, as a result these factors will influence their teaching practices and learning (Richards & Farrell, 2005). According to (Loham, 2000) most of the learning that teachers are exposed to, occurs in their workplace but also includes short workshops from time to time. These workshops are 17.

(26) not to acquire any certification, but to enhance skills. And because it is informal the learning approach was more associated to sharing and exchanging ideas among teachers. Also selfefficacy is considered to be an influence of job and working behavior and informal learning among teachers (Woerkom, Nijhof, & Loek, 2002).. Teachers’ Performance Teachers show their performance through different practices within the classroom through the capacity they have to engage their students in the class content, create and maintain a positive class environment and be able to convey their class content in a clear and easy way. Also Borko and Putnam’s (1997), stated that professional development has influence in teachers’ instructional methods and as a result in students’ learning. For some teachers acquiring teachers’ experience, is crucial for performing according to the expectations, and this is because teaching requires different skills, and some skills come only from the daily experience at work (Murnane & Phillips, 1981). Some researchers also mentioned the differences in the performance of novice and experienced language teachers, and how they perceive and understand what they do. Experienced EFL teachers demonstrate the following characteristics (Tsui, 2003, as cited in Richards & Farrell, 2005, p.7-8). . More intuitive judgment because of experience.. . Interest in inquiry and solving teaching problems.. . A real concern for students' learning.. . Importance of accomplishing objectives and aligning the class content to the achievement of these objectives.. . Better understanding and use of language learning strategies.. . Greater fluidity and automaticity in teaching.. Classroom Management Classroom management, often related to discipline, is a priority in a teacher’s agenda (American Psychological Association, 2014 [APA]). Classroom management has two distinct purposes: establish and sustain an orderly environment to make possible students engagement, and also enhance students' social and moral growth (Evertson & Weinstein, 2006). More literature provides some specific aspects that teachers should follow in order to prevent situations such as disruptive behavior in class. The American Psychological Association, in 18.

(27) their web site: http://www.apa.org mentioned some of the aspects teachers should consider for classroom management: . Establish procedures for teaching expected positive behaviors.. . Establish procedures for discouraging problem behaviors.. . Establish a system to monitor students.. . Prepare lessons with enough time of anticipation.. . Ensure the class content matches with the student.. Classroom management is important among EFL teachers, since keeping the control of the class is a delicate issue (Moskowits & Hayman, 1976). For some teachers the situation is really frustrating, so much that they decided to leave their jobs, claiming indiscipline of their students as one of the principal reasons to quit (Wolfgang & Glickman, 1986). In addition, the current situation of teachers is not as favorable as before. Some factors that affect their daily work and to mention some of these: . An increasing number of students who come to school with several behavioral problems.. . Some teachers lack of training on classroom management techniques.. . Some teachers misinterpret being “good” means being “permissive” (Canter & Canter, 1976, as cited in Kaliska, 2002).. The mentioned factors are part of the current teaching situation. This should not, however, discourage EFL teachers in their work. Besides, teachers can do great efforts in order to create a positive class environment, not necessarily by being extremely demanding, but by being flexible and pleasant with their students. Despite the fact that working with students who are from the elementary level is hard, more effort is needed and more attention paid to the techniques implemented within the classroom EFL Teachers have a great challenge in this aspect. Yet, not only do teachers have a hard time, the students as well, no matter where they are from, nor their economic status, going to class is always something difficult for some of them. Nowadays some students arrive at school with more in their backpacks than notebooks, they also carry with family issues, fear, frustrations and other negative emotions and feelings that are reflected in their behavior (Kaliska, 2002). This generates a difficult situation for. 19.

(28) teachers because they should be aware of the problematic and generate strategies to help their students to solve their issues first, since this might be affecting their development in class. EFL teachers are, as a result, in the middle of a struggle where teaching a foreign language seems to be the ultimate goal, but in order to achieve it, it is necessary to overcome all the obstacles that are present, such as the behavior of their students. Kaliska (2002), in her research, provided the most efficient techniques for classroom management for teachers, EFL teachers apply these approaches within their classrooms. Table 2.1. Different Approaches for Classroom Management Approach. Definition. Assertive Discipline. Developed by Lee Canter and Associates (1976). This approach incorporate class rules with positive and negative consequences, and fit in any classroom setting. The EFL teacher should motivate their students to participate in the activities, praise their achievements, respect them and modeling the behavior expected.. Discipline with Dignity. The teacher it is fair and treats pupils as individually, focusing on what works for each one. It is more personalized, and makes emphasis on giving the pupil what he or she deserves for his/her behavior.. Peer Meditation. When pupils have differences among each other, peer meditation can be implemented. Schmidt, Friedman and Marvel (1992), stated that when students participate in this value experience they solve conflicts easier.. Time Management. Teachers are aware of the time spent in each activity and respect it, maintaining through this the order in the class (Glazer, 2001, as cited in Kaliska, 2002).. Note. Adapted from “A comprehensive Study Identifying the Most Effective Classroom Management Techniques and Practice”. By P. Kaliska. 2002, Master Thesis. Available in http://www2.uwstout.edu/content/lib/thesis/2002/2002kaliskap.pdf. Instructional Practices Instructional practices are defined as general principles, guidelines, suggestions and others, for good and effective teaching. Some of the components of effective teaching, perceived by students according to Eble (1971), are:. 20.

(29) . Teachers present facts from related fields and conceptual understanding.. . Teachers provide clear explanation, summarize major points.. . Teachers encourage class discussion and interaction.. . Teachers show a genuine interest in students and respect them as persons.. . Teachers are dynamic and enthusiast, exhibit self-confidence, demonstrate interest in teaching.. Indeed, the mentioned aspects permit the teachers to have better instructional practices, and research has shown that when the behavior of the teacher is positive, the outcome is positive attitudes in the students (Martinez & Martinez, 1999). According to Keesee (2011), instructional strategies can be classified into five groups that will permit the teachers to run the class more smoothly. These strategies can be: Direct Instruction which is highly teacherdirected and is the most commonly used. Indirect Instruction: mainly student-centered. Interactive instruction: where discussion and sharing of the pupils is the main component. Experiential learning: oriented to develop activities that will permit the construction of new knowledge among the students. And Independent study: oriented to self-learning, and peer works. In order to understand better, these strategies are presented in the following table, and some methods used per each one of them are also proposed: Table 2.2. Different Methods for Instructional Strategy Instructional strategy Direct Instruction Indirect Instruction Interactive Instruction Experimental Learning Independent Study. Methods Explicit teaching, drill and practice, didactic questions and demonstrations Reading for meaning, concept formation Brainstorming, peer practice, discussion,tutorial groups Field trips, conducting experiments, role playing, games, simulations Essays, reports, homework, research projects, learning centers. Note. Adapted from “Teaching and Learning Resources: Instructional Approaches”. By G. S. Keesee. 2011. Retrieved from http://teachinglearningresources.pbworks.com/w/page/19919560 /Instructional-Approaches. 21.

(30) Students’ Engagement The necessity of paying attention to this aspect within the teachers’ performance is because students’ engagement permits teachers to be aware and quickly identify problems of low achievement, boredom, drop outs and others (Fredericks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004 as cited in the Regional Education Laboratory [REL], 2011). Students’ engagement is demonstrated by the students within the classroom as participation in class. And this is most of the time a response to the teachers’ motivation of students to participate, and work in the classroom. Usually, within the definition can also be included feelings of belonging to the group, feeling comfortable during the class, and being committed to learn (REL, 2011). In English education, students’ engagement is needed because in order to learn new vocabulary words and sentences in English, the students observe their teacher and also listen carefully to the teachers' pronunciation of words. Furthermore, repeating these vocabulary words, participating in role plays and other activities are only a result of the engagement of the student in the class. And moreover this it is an important aspects for EFL teachers, because it has been shown that student engagement has a positive relation with achievement (REL, 2011). This means that when the teacher generate students’ engagement he or she can perceive it by measuring (through grades, and attendance to class). On the other hand, lack of commitment or engagement is translated into dropping out of school and low scores in the students. Teachers should be very involved in the students’ engagement process by providing clear definitions and articulation of the words in the vocabulary for the lesson. Another way to engage the students in the class is when the teachers provide feedback to their students after any activity developed in the class.. Self-efficacy Theory and its Influence on Performance Self-efficacy literature explains that the main source of information about it is the social cognitive theory from Bandura. After he published his article: Self efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavior Change (1977), large amounts of studies and literature has followed it (Capa, 2005, as cited in Abu-Tineh et al, 2011) Among all the reasons why this theory has become a trend in the past years is the fact that behavior may be predicted by studying selfefficacy. In addition, a teachers’ sense of self efficacy is considered a predictor of productive teaching. practices. (Abu-Tineh. et. al,. 2011).. Taiwan. is. targeting. employees capable of performing adequately, and accomplishing the objectives set within the. 22.

(31) work place. English teachers who are able to accomplish the objectives set within the organization, and even personal goals set by the teachers themselves. More about self-efficacy, according to Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001), the concept of teachers’ sense of self efficacy has been defined as the teachers’ judgment of his or her capabilities to bring about desired outcomes of student engagement and learning, even more those. students. who. may. be. difficult to. motivate.. Also,. teacher. efficacy. is. associated with teacher effectiveness, besides influencing students’ achievement, attitude and affective growth (Sunjin, 2011). Within educative organizations, due to the demands of the service, it is necessary that the teaching staff consider themselves able to get the most positive outcomes from every class they teach, mainly because the new young generation demands the best practices from their teachers. Distraction in the classroom happens very easily nowadays. There is not even a need to interact with other classmates, just having a smartphone is enough to distract a student from any class. Hence, EFL teachers are required to do their best to gain the attention, generate motivation and engagement in their students during every class. From the theory stated by Bandura, and also more studies done by other researchers we understand more in depth about the topic. For instance, some researchers mention that: a strong sense of self efficacy permits teachers to consider themselves able to positively influence their students’ performance. They also choose challenging activities and make an effort to overcome difficulties and trials presented in the practice (Ashton & Webb, 1986 as cited Abu-Tineh, Abdullah et. al., 2011 ). There are more important findings from the self-efficacy theory to be mentioned in this literature review: teachers with high levels of self-efficacy are considered to be more likely to implement different and innovate didactic methods, and also use classroom management approaches to encourage students to work independently, and with more control of the behavior of the students in the classroom (Cousins & Walker, 1995, as cited in Caprara, Barbaranelli, Steca, & Malone, 2006). On the other hand, teachers who show weaker selfefficacy beliefs will be linked to higher scores on emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, and to lower scores on personal accomplishment (Evers, Brouwers, & Welko, 2002). Self efficacy also provides a sense of resilience, and this means that teachers can stay in a task and work to achieve it, despite how hard it becomes, including not only the accomplishment of the same but also accomplishing it using innovation and excellence in their practices (Bandura, 1994).. 23.

(32) It is also known that teachers, who organize their activities from the first day of school and are aware of the different necessities of their students, have a smoother classroom management (Brooks, 1985) classroom management is a reflection of the teachers’ selfefficacy. Besides this, high levels of self-efficacy will have a positive effect on academic achievement for the students. Teachers with high levels of self-efficacy exhibit positive reinforcement, enjoy working with the class, and provide support to students who have difficulties, instead of ignoring them (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007). Furthermore, in Banduras’ efficacy theory, he stated that there are four sources of information or construction of self-efficacy: performance accomplishments (also called mastery experience), vicarious experience, verbal persuasion and physiological states (Bandura, 1977). In this research only the first three sources of self-efficacy will be addressed. In order to better understand this theory which is principal in the research, an explanation of each one is provided in the following paragraphs.. Sources of Self-efficacy The first of the sources and the most influential in the construction of self-efficacy is mastery experiences, also known as performance accomplishments. This source is based on personal mastery experiences. According to Bandura (1997), success raises mastery expectations, while on the other hand, repeated failure lowers them. Despite repeated failure, when this is later overcome by determined effort, self-motivation and persistence are increased, hence the performer convinces that even the most difficult goals, or skills can be achieved and mastered through constant effort. For some EFL teachers, experience permits them to identify which are the useful practices or methods for them, in order to maximize the positive outcomes from every class, therefore this is considered the major constructor of efficacy. In contrast, teachers who have little experience in teaching can feel less confident or insecure when facing unknown situations within their classrooms, such as the implementation of new curricula, elaboration of lesson plans, and other documents requested by the administrative personnel from the institutions. The second source is called vicarious experiences, this refers to the fact that seeing a colleague succeed at a particular task may boost the self-efficacy of the observer (Lunenburg, 2011). In this case for example, if an EFL teacher sees another EFL teacher from the same school implement one (or more) specific practices for an adequate classroom management and this practice turns out to be successful, the teacher who observes the action will consider the 24.

(33) activity and try to implement it within his or her classroom. This source is more effective when the person who is modeling the action is very similar in characteristics to the one who observes it (both are EFL teachers, probably have the same years of experience and a similar group of students). On the other hand a poor performance or negative outcomes will tend to generate a low sense of self efficacy in the observer. Thus, the person who does the action or who is a role model for us will be a key aspect because the more trustable is the person, we feel more inclined to follow his or her model (Estrada, 2013). Verbal persuasion this can be something as simple as a compliment towards a colleague after a productive performance, or specific feedback, positive or negative. This will affect the efficacy of the receptor of the message. The last source is psychological states which is related to the physical response that the body produces when developing the task. In the case of EFL teachers’ verbal persuasion not only comes from colleagues. Students and supervisors are also included in this group (Mulholland & Wallace, 2001). However, their power of persuasion is affected by factors such as: leaders’ credibility, previous relationship with the employees, and the influence he or she has with the organization (Eden, 2003, as cited in Lunenburg, 2011). Interactions of teachers with colleagues and proper feedback associated with their performance influence teachers’ efficacy. The positive or negative comments from others in the teaching context such as administrators, parents, colleagues and students can increase or decrease the sense of self efficacy among teachers (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007).. Summary After reading about the different sources of self-efficacy and its importance in the work place (in this case educative organizations, cram schools or short- term schools) it is vital to cultivate these sources, and furthermore constantly examine if these are included and influencing the professional development of EFL teachers. Many teachers who are new in the EFL job as part of their professional development, need to be trained to enhance their selfefficacy and confidence as teachers. Workshops and development experiences in the first years of work are necessary for the development of their self-efficacy (Karimi, 2011). Regarding, professional development for EFL teachers, learning experiences from formal training, and informal learning are in a daily basis. Trainings received in the different colleagues and universities, within the courses from an academic degree in education, or shortterm trainings such as teaching certifications (TESOL, TEFL, etc) are part of the formal 25.

(34) learning of teachers. These two different kinds of training: formal education (degrees and certifications) and short-term workshops, enable EFL teachers to perform according to a criteria, or level of expectation established for the educative institutions or even the Ministry of Education in the respective country, in this case Taiwan R.O.C. Regarding informal learning. This includes activities such as: self-learning, learning among colleagues, sharing experiences, and unscheduled meetings. All these activities from informal learning, can be experienced within the work place. Thus, this become an important aspect in the teachers’ professional development, and the majority of the teachers’ learning is produced on this way. Furthermore, activities such as: coaching, participation, demonstrations, mentoring, simulations and rewards are builders of self-efficacy sources : mastery experiences, verbal persuasion and vicarious experiences (Heslin, 1999). The professional development of the teachers definitely will have an influence in their performance in the classroom. In fact, professional development focuses on a particular area such as instructional practices, increase the use of this practice in the classroom (Desimone et al, 2002). This is important for teachers, because as mentioned before the reason for teachers to attend to trainings and to improve themselves constantly is to be able to apply the learning in their teaching performance. The three dimensions of performance: classroom management, instructional practices and students engagement, are very important for EFL teachers. These areas should reflect teachers’ self-efficacy, which as previously mentioned brings a number of benefits for teachers and students. Finally, as mentioned before, self-efficacy on teachers is a motivation to find new practices for professional development in teachers (Woerkom et al, 2002).. 26.

(35) CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN This chapter displays the method that was utilized in conducting the present study and a description of the research approach, including semi-structured interview questions, which are adopted from previous research studies, to collect in-depth information form the respondents. The sample of the participants’ selection describes the purposive sampling technique utilized for the selection of the EFL teachers who participated in this study. This is followed by a description of the data collection method which includes: face to face interviews, Skype interviews, observation. And the analysis process implemented in this research.. Research Approach The researcher was interested in identifying what actions and experiences construct the professional development for English teachers working in Taiwanese cram schools. Also, what are the perceived outcomes of professional development experiences for teachers, and how professional development practices, are reflected on teaching performance, specifically demonstrating self-efficacy. The aim was to gain a better understanding in depth of this issue, therefore qualitative approach was adopted for this research. To collect the data, the researcher was the primary instrument, other instruments such as: semi-structured interviews, observation and questionnaire to formulate a background of participants were adopted in this research. All these aspects helped the researcher to elaborate a posterior analysis and coding of the interviews, in order to understand the professional development of teachers in cram schools in Taiwan.. Research Framework The following research framework attempts to explain and link the literature review of self-efficacy theory, along with the learning experiences for professional development, and as a result to understand how these influence the performance of EFL Teachers in Taiwanese cram schools. The advisor and researcher in this dissertation worked together in the elaboration of an appropriate framework for the development of the study. The first component of the framework is the teachers’ professional development aspect. In this aspect were included the formal learning experience: training and teaching certifications, also includes the informal learning experience. Following this, sources of self-efficacy were identified within the professional development experiences: formal and informal learning. More specifically, this is 27.

(36) meant to find that the enlisted activities are strongly related to mastery experiences, vicarious experience, and verbal persuasion. After this, the next step was to learn about the influence of professional development on teachers’ performance reflecting self-efficacy. Teachers’ Performance was described based on the three main components that demonstrate self-efficacy according to Moran & Hoy (2001): students’ engagement, classroom management, and instructional strategies. Once again, the link between professional development and performance will be the theory of self-efficacy. Therefore the following figure represents the framework of this research:. Professional Development of EFL teachers working in cram schools in Taiwan Experience: Self-efficacy Theory for Teachers. Formal and Informal Learning Experiences. Self-efficacy sources: Mastery experiences Vicarious experiences Verbal Persuasion. Perceived Outcome. Teaching performance: Indicators of SelfEfficacy for Teachers. Classroom Management Instructional Strategies Student Engagement. Figure 3.1. Research framework.. Sample and Participant Selection Purposeful selection of participants was done in this research. According to Chein (1981), purposeful sampling is used when the researcher wants to learn and gain new insights, thus the selected participants are only the ones who can contribute the most to this research. Another aspect when selecting the sample is that they could pertinent information about the F. 28.

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