促進和平文化的宗教教育教學探究-以海地為例

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(1)AN EXPLORATIVE STUDY ON TEACHING RELIGIOUS EDUCATION FOR A CULTURE OF PEACE IN HAITI. by. VIRGINIE MARC. A dissertation submitted to the department of education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of. PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. Major: Curriculum and Instruction. Adviser: HSIAO-LAN SHARON CHEN. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan June 2019.

(2) “If I went back to college today, I think I would probably major in comparative religion, because that’s how integrated it is in everything that we are working on and deciding and thinking about in life today.” John Kerry, U.S. Secretary of State, 8/7/13. © Copyright by VIRGINIE MARC, 2019 All Rights Reserved.

(3) DEDICATION. This dissertation is dedicated to my mother, who told me that she would rather walk bare foot so that I can become a philosophe. I was a five-year-old girl, mom, I still remember. Though you meant Philo that is equivalent to 12th grade, but I made it way farther. I love you, mom! This dissertation is also dedicated to the nation of Haiti, my country. It is a way to show my love and hope in a peaceful and prosperous Haiti. This dissertation is your voice, Haiti!.

(4) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This Dissertation would not have been possible without the tremendous encouragement of family and friends, the guidance of professors, and strength from the Lord, to all of whom I am heartily thankful. I am very grateful to the MOFA Scholarship who had provided me the opportunity to get most of my Ph.D. studies at the National Taiwan Normal University – NTNU – by their financial support. My thanks go to NTNU which has provided us a sane environment with facilities for studying, and to the Office of International Affairs and the Education Department office teams who had been always there for me that I’m so grateful for their patience and tolerance. I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my dissertation advisor, HSIAO-LAN SHARON CHEN who has been devoted to guide and support me kindly throughout the journey. Without her expertise, and willingness to help by her suggestions, encouragements, this study could not have been completed. Besides, I would like to thank my committee members, Dr. CHUEN-MIN HUANG, Dr. WEIWEN CHANG, Dr. YI-JIA TSAI, and Dr. THERESA YE, who appreciated my research efforts and gave me constructive comments, and suggestions to improve my Dissertation. Also, I would like to take this opportunity to thank all the other professors at the Education Department who help me with a more understanding about my topic. An honorable mention goes to my families, especially my brother – Vladimir Merard – who accompanied. me. during. the. data. collection process.. Finally,. to. the. anonymous. respondents/participants of study in Haiti and my friends for their understandings and supports on me in completing this Study. Without helps of the particular that mentioned above, I would face many difficulties while doing this research..

(5) 促進和平文化的宗教教育教學探究-以海地為例. 論文摘要本論文主要以海地中等及高等教育階段之學生與教育工作者為研究對象，探討海地人對宗教教育的觀點，包括對宗教教育應該涵括的內容與焦點的相關見解。本論文之研究設計，兼採質性分析及量性研究途徑，在資料蒐集方面，分為兩個階段進行:第一階段採問卷調查方法，共計回收 297 份問卷資料(其中 175 份男性及 122 份女性作答者)；第二階段則採訪談方法，蒐集了 10 位海地的宗教教育專家(其中 7 位男性及 3 位女性專家)的訪談資料。透過研究分析，本論文發現，宗教包容上的需求與促進社會的和平文化密切相關，而這兩個議題也是理想宗教教育課程設計的要素。換言之，一個好的宗教教育課程是可作為一個社會發展和平文化的有效工具。故本論文建議政策制定者可適當地運用好的宗教教育課程，來修正淨化許多現階段海地社會所廣泛存在不良的一面。最後，制定有效力的宗教教育課程體系，將能助於海地人更加理解及尊重有別於海地傳統宗教信仰間的歧異，進而有助海地國內文化更深一層的相互理解。關鍵字: 宗教教育、宗教包容、和平文化. I.

(6) AN EXPLORATIVE STUDY ON TEACHING RELIGIOUS EDUCATION FOR A CULTURE OF PEACE IN HAITI. ABSTRACT This research delimited its scope to secondary and higher education students in Haiti and focused on discovering how Haitians regarded RE, what its contents should be, and what its focus should be. The research employed quantitative and qualitative approaches. The data collection was divided into two phases. The first phase was administered and collated survey data from 297 respondents out of which 175 and 122 were males and females, respectively. The second phase administered and collated interview data from 10 educational religious experts, of whom 7 were males and 3 were females. The findings reveal a core issue which emerged from the analysis section – the correlation between the need for religious tolerance and the creation of a social culture of peace – with both of these issues being developed out of an effective RE curriculum. Where this need is, perhaps, greater lies in the ability to use RE as a tool for developing a society that is at peace with itself, thereby suggesting that if applied correctly, RE can act as a cathartic vehicle for addressing the ills of the wider Haitian society. From here, the creation of an effective RE course is viewed as a system that can also help to develop a greater social understanding of the domestic culture, and one that seeks to recognize and respect divergent attitudes towards religious practices that lie outside of Haitian tradition. Keywords: Religious Education, Religious Tolerance, Culture of Peace. II.

(7) TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DEDICATION ACKNOWLEGMENT 摘要 ............................................................................................................................................ I ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. II TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................................... .III LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. VII LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................. .IX CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY.................................................................................... 1 Rethinking the Purpose of RE in the Real World ........................................................ .2 Approaches to Teaching RE ....................................................................................... .3 RE and the Culture of Peace and Violence .................................................................. .3 The Context and Issues of RE in Haiti ........................................................................ .5 Redefining RE in Haiti ............................................................................................... .8 PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................ 9 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................ 11 RESEARCH QUESTIONS .............................................................................................. 12 DEFINITION OF TERMS ............................................................................................... 12 Religious Education (RE) ......................................................................................... .12 Culture of Peace ....................................................................................................... .13 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY ................................................................ 14. III.

(8) RATIONALE AND SIGNIFICANCE ............................................................................. .16 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................. 20 CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND OF RE IN HAITI ...................................................... 20 History of Religion in Haiti ..................................................................................... .20 An Anthropological–Historical Analysis between Vodou and Christianity .............. .24 Historical Conflicts between Christian and Vodou in Haiti...................................... .26 Vodou Conflict and Cooperation ............................................................................. .29 Contexts and Functions of Vodou and Christian Worldviews .................................. .31 The Culture of Haiti ................................................................................................ .44 Haitian Educational System .................................................................................... .47 Teaching RE in Haiti: Protestant versus Catholic .................................................... .53 REVIEWS AND REFLECTIONS ON RE ....................................................................... 56 Curriculum Concept of RE ...................................................................................... .57 Purpose of Teaching RE ......................................................................................... .70 Local and Global Issues in RE ................................................................................ .76 Teaching RE in Schools ......................................................................................... .88 An Appraisal of Previous Studies .......................................................................... .101 RE as Human Rights ............................................................................................. .112 RE as Multicultural Education .............................................................................. .115 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RE AND CULTURE OF PEACE .................................. .117 Concept of Peace and Culture of Peace .................................................................. 118 Teaching RE for Peace........................................................................................... 132 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................. 147. IV.

(9) LESSONS LEARNED FROM PILOT STUDY .............................................................. 148 Views on RE from Pilot Survey ............................................................................ .148 How RE is taught in Haiti – from Pilot Interviews ................................................ .154 RESEARCH DESIGN.................................................................................................... 156 Research Procedure................................................................................................ 156 Rationale for the Research Design ......................................................................... 159 Phase I: Survey ...................................................................................................... 162 Phase II: Interview with Experts ............................................................................ 171 CHAPTER SUMMARY ............................................................................................... 179 CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ............................................................ 180 PHASE ONE: FINDINGS FROM THE SURVEY ......................................................... 180 Respondents Views on RE ..................................................................................... 181 Respondents Views on Religious Tolerance ........................................................... 187 Respondents Views on Culture of Peace ................................................................ 191 Suggestions for a Prototype RE .............................................................................. 195 Interpretation of the Data ....................................................................................... 197 PHASE TWO: FINDINGS FROM THE INTERVIEWS WITH EXPERTS ................... 199 Experts Perspectives on Advantages and Challenges of RE .................................... 199 Perception of RE as a Subject ................................................................................ 203 Experts Perspectives on a Prototype RE for Haiti: Its Content and Teaching Methods ................................................................................................................ .206 Experts Perspectives on the Contribution of RE to a Culture of Peace and Tolerance .............................................................................................................. .211. V.

(10) DISCUSSIONS ............................................................................................................. 212 Teaching RE in Haitian Schools ............................................................................. 213 Gender Differences on Teaching RE in Haiti ......................................................... 215 Core Issues of RE in Haiti ...................................................................................... 215 Suggestions for Teaching RE in Haitian Schools .................................................... 217 Views on Religious Tolerance for a Culture of Peace in Haiti ................................ 221 Views on RE for Haiti’s Schools ............................................................................ 225 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ................................................... 227 MAIN RESEARCH FINDINGS..................................................................................... 227 EMERGING NEEDS FOR AN RE PROTOTYPE FOR A CULTURE OF PEACE FOR HAITI .................................................................................................................... 230 The Design of the RE Prototype for Haiti.............................................................. .231 Importance of this RE Prototype for Haiti ............................................................. .233 IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY ............................................................................... 234 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES ................................................................... 235 EPILOGUE ............................................................................................................................. 238 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 242 APPENDICES APPENDIX A: Cover Letter & Survey Questionnaire .................................................... 260 APPENDIX B: Pilot Survey Questionnaire..................................................................... 268 APPENDIX C: Interview Questions ............................................................................... 270 APPENDIX D: Descriptive Statistical Results from the Survey ..................................... .273. VI.

(11) LIST OF TABLES Page Table 2.1.1: Brief Religious History of Haiti ............................................................................ .24 Table 2.1.5.1: Five Basic Questions and Value Orientations Reflected Possible Answers ......... .34 Table 2.1.5.2: The Function of Worldviews .............................................................................. .36 Table 2.1.5.4: Basic Questions about Reality ............................................................................ .41 Table 2.1.7 a: Haiti Education System ...................................................................................... .48 Table 2.1.7 b: History of Education in Haiti ............................................................................. .49 Table 2.1.7 c: Organizations Supporting Education Sector in Haiti ........................................... .50 Table 2.2.1.2 a: Differences between Catechesis and RE ........................................................... 64 Table 2.2.1.2 b: List of Key Concepts in Religious Studies........................................................ 66 Table 2.2.3.2 a: The Agreed Syllabus ....................................................................................... .79 Table 2.2.3.2 b: The Ladder of Skills Eight-Level Scale for RE................................................ .79 Table 2.2.4 a: Questions to Ask Oneself Before Planning any RE............................................. .88 Table 2.2.4 b: Characteristic of Caricatured CCAF and HEBS Schools .................................... .89 Table 2.2.4.2: Examples of Specific RE Pedagogies ................................................................. .98 Table 2.2.5: The Relationship between Morality and Religion ................................................. 104 Table 2.3.1.4: Differentiation between Culture of War and Violence from Culture of Peace ... .126 Table 3.2.3.1: Survey Questionnaire Structure ........................................................................ .163 Table 3.2.3.4: Survey Data Collections................................................................................... .169 Table 3.2.4.1: Experts Background Information ..................................................................... .173 Table 3.2.4.2: Interview Questions ......................................................................................... .174 Table 4.1.1: Descriptive Statistics – Respondents Views on RE ............................................. .182. VII.

(12) Table 4.1.2: Descriptive Statistics – Respondents Views on Religious Tolerance ................... .187 Table 4.1.3: Descriptive Statistic – Respondents Views on Culture of Peace .......................... .191 Table 4.1.5.1: Independent Sample Test for RE, RT, CP ........................................................ .197 Table 4.1.5.2: Correlations Using Bivariate ............................................................................ .198 Table 4.2.2: Subgroups of Experts .......................................................................................... .204 Table 5.2.1: The Design of the RE Prototype for Haiti ........................................................... .232. VIII.

(13) LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 3.1: A Graphical Portrayal of Data from the Project’s Pilot Study ................................ 150 Figure 3.2.1: Research Procedure ........................................................................................... .158 Figure 3.2.3.4: Survey Responses Volume .............................................................................. 169 Figure 3.2.3.5: Importing Data ............................................................................................... .171 Figure 3.2.4.5 a: Columns of Menu, Nodes and Data .............................................................. .177 Figure 3.2.4.5 b: Excerpt Ready for Dropping into the Relevant Node.................................... .178 Figure 3.2.4.5 c: Theme and Subthemes ................................................................................. .178 Figure 4.1.1.1a: Views on the Inclusion of RE as a Subject in Haiti Schools .......................... .183 Figure 4.1.1.1b. Reasons for support of RE in schools ............................................................ .185 Figure 4.1.2.1: Suggestions on how to Religious Tolerance can be reached ............................ .189 Figure 4.1.3.1: Suggestions on how to Reach Peace ............................................................... .193 Figure 4.1.4 a: Word Graph on what an ideal RE should look like .......................................... .195 Figure 4.1.4 b: Percentages for the Various Views on how an ideal RE should look like ......... 196 Figure 4.2.1.1: Advantages of RE mentioned by the Participants ............................................ .201 Figure 4.2.1.2: Challenges of RE mentioned by Participants ................................................... .203 Figure 4.2.3.1: Words used to describe what RE should Contain ............................................ .207 Figure 4.2.3.2: Words used by Participants when Describing how RE should be Taught ........ .210. IX.

(14) CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY People hold widely divergent views on teaching religious education (RE). The divergence lays in the different definitions of RE and in people’s concerns about what part RE can play in the real world. What is RE? Collins English Dictionary defines ‘RE’ as follows 1) an education in a school which places a strong emphasis on the beliefs associated with a particular religion; 2) the teaching or instruction of a particular religion; 3) a subject taught in schools in the UK which educates about the different religions of the world (Collins Dictionaries 2015). These perspectives are not randomly chosen. The way many countries define the nature and purpose of RE have been influenced by modern philosophies of education from Rousseau to Dewey, by new interpretations of human rights including the rights of children, and by progressive reinterpretations of religion on the part of theologians and religion scholars (Hull, 2002).. Scholars in the field of RE such as Engebretson et al. (eds.) (2010), Jackson (2004) and stern (2006) have dealt with the question ‘what is RE?’ and all agreed on the complexity of RE definition. The plural nature of the term RE differs in the content that is delivered, notably in the methodology and theories of this curricular subject (Gellel, 2010 p. 442). For instance, in his book (2006), “Teaching Religious Education: Researchers in the Classroom”, Julian Stern describes RE as a subject that is non-confessional, multi-faith and respectful of non-religious ways of life (as described in the National Framework for RE in England and in the most locally Agreed Syllabuses for RE). Meanwhile, as Gellel has stated it, “RE, Religious Knowledge, Religious studies, Catechism, Christian Education, and Religious Instruction are only some of the overlapping terms. 1.

(15) that are used and each term brings with it different emphases and consequently different academic and ideological underpinnings.”. 1.1.1 Rethinking the Purpose of RE in the Real World Depends on the purpose of RE, it varies from one country to another country or/and from one school to another school. In historical religious schools (including Jewish, Christian and the others), the purpose of RE was to indoctrinate or evangelize the students only. Meanwhile, the purpose of RE is gradually shifting to a more holistic life point of views that “encourage students’ critical thinking and independent learning” (Kohn, 1999). Today, many people (especially those in the field of RE) believe that the purpose of RE is to equip students in their “personal, social life, and intellectual development” (Capel, Leask & Turner, 1999). In England, for instance, in 2004 an “inclusive statement of the aims, purposes and nature of RE in schools was agreed by all major faith communities and professional associations in RE”. These people believe that RE develop pupil’s knowledge and understanding of Christianity, other principal religions, other religious traditions and other view of the world (The importance of religious education: joint statement- The Church of England 2006). Further, culture of peace (or education for peace) is another purpose of RE because religious and spiritual bodies have always been concerned about peace (i.e. Tyrrell, 1995; Arweck et al, 2005a, b; Harris & Morris, 2003; Nesbitt & Henderson, 2003; Said & Funk, 2003; Wesner, 2005) as well as individual specialists in the field of RE (i.e. Nipkow, 2003). So, many educational initiatives in RE are taken that overlap with peace education. For instance, to teach peace education, Johannes Lähnemann’s Nuremberg Forum has been encouraging teachers to use the spiritual and ethical teachings of students own religious traditions as resource in order to develop a new understanding of, and respect for, people of other faiths and backgrounds.. 2.

(16) 1.1.2 Approaches to Teaching RE Approaches to teaching RE diverge greatly. According to Andrew Wright and Ann-Marie Brandom (2000), “views of the nature and aims of education immediately affect approaches to RE, just as views of religion affect models of the subject.” These views of education are described in three approaches: 1) RE as an induction into community and culture; 2) RE as the liberal study of religion; and 3) RE as an agent of humanization. In England, “the current truce in RE between the advocates of the different approaches is exemplified by the twin idea of learning about and learning from religion (s)”. (Wright & Brandom, 2000). Because of these different views of RE, teaching RE also have different approaches. For instance, almost all countries in Europe see religion as a part of public education (Lähnemann, 2008); so, the predominant approach to teach RE is multi-religious/non-confessional. But in countries like Turkey and Greece, RE is confessional with absence of other religions. However, today, as mention Lähnemann, these countries begin to lively discuss on the necessity to incorporate more element of interreligious learning.. 1.1.3 RE and the Culture of Peace and Violence RE is being used in various parts of the world to encourage and enable a culture of peace. The latter includes the teaching of world religion in school, interreligious and interfaith dialogues, religious toleration, and so on. Many are convinced that religion has contributed to both peace and violence throughout human history (Huntington, 1996; Pew Conference Report, 2003; Richardson, 1960; Wright, 1941; UNESCO,1994).. 3.

(17) What is peace? Indeed, the concept of peace needs to be defined here. Like RE, peace definition has evolved through time. According to Navarro-Castro & Nario-Galace (2008), “Early secular writings on the subject of peace indicate that peace was defined as merely the absence of war or direct violence. This negative formulation was first given by Hugo Grotius in 1625 (Dobrosielski, 1987).”. Today, peace researchers and educators agree to split the concept of peace in two, stating that the meaning of peace can be captured by the idea of a negative peace (the absence of war or physical/direct violence) and the idea of a positive peace (the presence of just and non-exploitative relationships, as well as human and ecological well-being, such that the root causes of conflict are diminished) (ibid p. 13-14).. Concerned about culture of peace, in the years of 1993 and 1994, UNESCO held a conference in Barcelona, Spain under the theme “The Contribution by Religions to the Culture of Peace” which pioneered a dialogue with the religious traditions and peace research centers. The objective of this dialogue was to concentrate on the cultural aspect of peace and the wisdom of the great religious traditions. The conference gathered many eminent religious figures from over a dozen religious traditions, several renowned peace researchers, prominent educators, as well as social workers and political personalities (UNESCO, 1994). Of course, UNESCO is not alone; Johannes Lähnemann’s Nuremberg Forum has contributed to this initiative by linking religious and interreligious education, by promoting education towards violence-free communication and conflicts resolution, environment education, and education for socio-economic development, all under the umbrella of peace education. The forum brings together NGOs such as the Peace Education Standing. 4.

(18) Commission, a branch the World Conference on Religions for Peace. In addition, this publication was the first to bring East Asian and Western contributions specifically to the debate about RE and peace education. (Jackson & Fujiwara, 2008). 1.1.4 The Context and Issues of RE in Haiti 1.1.4. 1 Religious Context in Haiti Haiti has emerged from a colonial system, a Historically-Catholic colony (France). During the colonial era, Christianization of the slaves was integral to the colony. Subsequently, French Catholic priests were sent to the colony to provide Christian instruction. The enslaved people were mandated by the Code Noir to be baptized, and they sporadically attended Mass, married, and were directed in catechism (Debien, 1967). The Black Code of 1685 outlawed the practice of other religions as well as formal education for blacks. As Brutus (1948) put it, formal education was not provided for black slaves in order to maintain distance between species who command from those who obey. But the slaves did not tame, dubious about the unsavory reputation of the white masters, continue to practice Vodou by incorporating a variety of catholic practices into their belief system.. After Haiti declared its independence in 1804, the Vatican withdrew its (European) priests and refused to recognize the world’s first Black republic. General Fabre-Nicolas Geffrard, a member of the mulatto elite, was president of Haiti from 1859 to 1867. As he was eager to replace Vodou, signed the country’s first concordat, which made Catholicism the official religion. An amendment to this concordat in 1862 granted the Church “an important role in secular education” (Haggerty, 1989). Besides, the English Wesleyan Mission in 1807 was the first Protestant group to come to Haiti after its independence (Edmonds & Gonzales, 2010). These Protestants were well welcomed. 5.

(19) by Haitian officials like Pétion, Christophe, and Boyer, who were concerned on the need for Haitian education. Other Protestant missions, largely imported from the United States, were gradually established in Haiti building schools (and churches) in different parts of the country (Fass, 2004 p.237).. Therefore, Catholic and Protestant have a predominant role in Haitian education and society. Meanwhile, the folk religion is struggling for rights and recognition. The 2019 Central Intelligence Agency – The World Factbook estimates the affiliation of Haitian as follow: Roman Catholic 54.7, Protestants 28.5 (Baptist 15.4%, Pentecostal 7.9%, Adventist 3%, Methodist 1.5%, other .7%), Vodou (official) 2.1%, other 4.6% (i.e. Baha’i Faith, Islam, Judaism, Buddhist, Hindus), unaffiliated 10.2%. Many Haitians practice elements of Vodou in addition to another religion, most often Roman Catholicism. (Haiti, 2019) One common saying is that Haitians are 70% Catholic, 30% Protestant, and 100% Vodou.. 1.1.4.2 Religious Issues in Haiti In Haiti, RE refers to a school subject taught in Christian schools such as Bible class and catechism mostly to convert students. This is indicative of religious dominion over the school system in Haiti, i.e. many Haitian schools are being funded by faith-based organizations. Consequently, most of these schools and their curricular are significantly directed by the religious principles of their sponsors. The confessional approach of RE in Haiti’s school is problematic; because, the teaching method disregards other belief system. As a result, creating a lack of understanding (or ignorance) of other religions which evolves religious discrimination and religious intolerance.. 6.

(20) In addition to religious discrimination, there is a tendency to marginalize other religion in the school. For instance, in catholic schools, students with catholic faith are more likely to feel comfortable with all the school’s requirements than students from Protestantism background. Students from Vodou background have no problem to fit in a catholic-based school as both religions merge together and recognized by the Haitian government. However, in Protestant school students from Catholic or Vodou background are more likely to feel oppressed as protestant emphasis on their conversion rather than embracing their religious experience. Whereas, having students from diverse beliefs in the classroom is by no means negative for it can be beneficial to an enriched learning environment.. Learning is a social activity according to constructivist theories of learning (Bruner, 1966). Therefore, teaching and learning RE need to be situated in real life experiences and link to previous learning, and to share their learning process with others accordingly. RE can be attractive to learners if the environment is inclusive and respectful of their background knowledge, levels, faiths, needs, and interests and wonders. Keeping students with diversity to engage in a classroom as well as engage them in their quest for learning can be challenging, but effective teaching can enable this process.. Many Haitians militants and intellectuals aspire to a secular state and believe that Haiti’s progress certainly has been hindered by religious beliefs and practices of different members of the society (Saint Paul, 2014). Education in Haiti has been driving by this secularization affirmation as RE has not been taught in non-religious public school anymore. However, as Moore (2013) mentioned it, “the marginalization or removal of teaching about religion ensures that students will have little. 7.

(21) or no understanding of Christian socialism (fusing Christian morals with socialist economic principles), liberation theology, the civil rights movement, or the religious origins of social justice.” Thus, according to Moore this phenomenon is nothing short of educational malfeasance (p.69). It is the role of school more than ever, especially Haitian schools, to teach about world religion in the ultimate goal of producing religiously literate citizens.. 1.1.5 Redefining RE in Haiti Above all, it is important to redefine RE for the purpose of this study. It is my thesis that RE is not complete without the inclusion of all the other religious beliefs. Also, an education or curriculum without RE, is incomplete. As it is the case in Haiti, this does not mean that teachers have an excuse to promote their religious beliefs against other belief system nor to impart knowledge about religion to students to memorize and recite only. What this means, rather, is that religious leaders, educators, curriculum makers, social workers, politicians, and so forth should adapt real situation approach to RE in order to invite students to join thought and action for fostering knowledge of world religion, religious tolerance, and religious dialogue. In Haiti, RE which is inclusive can be helpful in promoting peace and addressing violence and resistance caused by religious intolerance.. The ability for people to get along well with one another in society depends a great deal on the kind of interaction they had with one another during their school experiences. It is of paramount importance that students develop skills in interactional exchanges in order to be successful both in their studies and in life. In order to achieve this, teachers need to provide them with opportunities for meaningful communicative modeling when their classes are made up of learners from difference religious backgrounds.. 8.

(22) 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT As mentioned above, religion creates social problem in Haiti. Religious communities and private operators have gradually become the main providers of education in Haiti because Haiti’s former leaders had never developed a well-functioning system of public schools (Salmi, 2000; Bulder, 2007). Consequently, two-thirds of the private schools are religious schools. In addition, catholic schools were jointly funded by the Haitian government and the Vatican thus these schools became non-secular public schools. Subsequently, RE is taught in many schools in Haiti (Wolff, 2008); most of these schools are permitted to follow their own programs of RE. Religious schools approach to RE is faith-based thus does not address social problem. These social problems can be put into one term which is lack of a culture of peace.. As noted earlier RE is synonymous to Bible lessons or catechism. For instance, in addition to the secular curriculum which can be Bible-based curriculum, Haitian Christian schools teach Bible truths to pupils and share about God to them. Haiti is a country in which state and religion are not totally separated. This is due to the fact that though Roman Catholicism official status was repealed with the enactment of the 1987 constitution; but Haiti and the Vatican continue to honor the 1860 Concordat relation. It has been a tradition in Haiti to hold a Te Deum1 service for presidential inauguration and significant historical anniversaries.. 1. The term Te Deum refers to a religious service in which the Te Deum laudamus (Thee, O God, we praise) hymn is sung, it is held to bless an event or give thanks (Henry, 1912). This occurs mainly in traditionally Catholic nations.. 9.

(23) The Haitian government tries to promote religious freedom and allows all religious groups to intervene in political affairs in order to bring peace through religion exempli gratia a committee of religious leaders was established to solve a problem with the most recent former president who was accused of having other nationality but Haitian. This committee was charged with the mission to ensure to collect evidences from different sources in order to check the veracity of this information. The committee carried out its mission the best way possible but ended up fizzling out because the problem was not tackled at the beginning. Whenever a political turmoil surfaces religious leaders are invited as competent people to use their wisdom and reasons to come up with a solution. Despite of their willingness to cooperate, their devotion to help the country out of the situation they always fail in their mission because they have to operate on the short term. Such experiences are living examples which can prove that religion can always be an alternative if used adequately, just to say that if we really want to resort to religion to sort out such important issues we should imperatively review our teaching methods and our way to see things. Thus, tackle such teaching with a reinforce dose of tolerance. Considering the important part religion can play in our daily struggle against the deterioration of the current situation while status quo is still maintained such a question ended up nurturing in me “what can education do?”. Lack of education (precisely a lack of religion literate) is one of the principal cause of religious discrimination and this latter is an obstacle to religious freedom or/and religious toleration in Haiti. There is possibility to feel the gap: The Haitian population needs to be educated on its own history with link to African animist culture, on history of Roman Catholic with its western and eastern roots as well as its history with Africa, and the history of Protestantism with link from Germany, France, England, United States, to Haiti. RE is said to contribute to peace, tolerance, and human. 10.

(24) right. Stemmed from this problem, Haiti is an appropriate case study in which to explore Haitian views on RE.. 1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The purpose of this study was to explore Haitian perceptions on teaching RE in three specific areas: the content, teaching method, and the contribution of RE for a culture of peace and tolerance in Haiti. This study was conducted with 297 respondents (including high school and university students) and 10 educational and religious experts. It employed survey method which administered questionnaires to selected respondents, and interview method that collated data from the experts. This allowed for a quantitative analysis followed with a qualitative interpretation of the collated data.. In other words, the endeavour of this study was motivated by the fact that RE could play a huge advantageous role in the public administrative machinery of Haiti. As Clyde Weber Votaw put it, “education is that process of nurture, instruction, and discipline which seeks to develop the character of the individual, and to fit him for a complete social service.” The purpose of education is exactly that of teaching RE. Concerned about Haitian views on RE for a culture of peace, this study attempts to bring forth Haitians views as one way to involve the population into this area of school curriculum. Hopefully Haitian views on teaching RE in schools would result in a clear and shared understanding of the knowledge and skills that young people will gain. By Haitian views, I mean the way that they (Haitians) describe the role of RE in Haitian personal and public life, how it should be taught and what should be the content.. 11.

(25) 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS As a school subject, RE is not clearly situated and defined in Haiti. For instances, the Haitian people are not yet aware of its advantages, contents, teaching style, contribution to peace, and vice versa. Accordingly, a survey questionnaire is designed for this study and after the data collection; the study will seek to answer these following four research questions below: 1- What are the RE issues in Haiti? 2- What are Haitians’ suggestions for RE in Haiti school? 3- What are Haitians’ views on religious tolerance in Haiti? 4- What are Haitians’ views on culture of peace in Haiti? 5- What are Haitians’ suggestions for a prototype RE?. 1.5 DEFINITION OF TERMS The following definitions will be used for the purpose of this study:. 1.5.1 Religious Education (RE) The dictionary definition of the term RE is 1) an education in a school which places a strong emphasis on the beliefs associated with a particular religion; 2) the teaching or instruction of a particular religion; 3) a subject taught in schools in the UK which educates about the different religions of the world (Collins Dictionaries 2015). In this study, the term RE is a subject taught in Haiti Catholic and Protestant schools which teaches catechism and Bible lessons respectively. Thus the definition of the existing RE in Haiti. The study advocates for a new definition of RE, which will go beyond the actual definition – RE for peace building.. 12.

(26) 1.5.2 Culture of Peace The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defines culture of peace and non-violence as a commitment to peace-building, mediation, conflict prevention and resolution, peace education, education for non-violence, tolerance, mutual respect, intercultural interfaith, dialogue, and reconciliation. The article 1 of the United Nations’ declaration establishes a set of points to respect in ideal circumstances in a society where culture of peace is promoted. It is summarized as follow: a. Respect for life, ending of violence and promotion and practice of non-violence through education, dialogue and cooperation; b. Full respect for the principles of sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of States and non-intervention in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any State, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and international law; c. Full respect for and promotion of all human rights and fundamental freedoms; d. Commitment to peaceful settlement of conflicts; e. Efforts to meet the developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations; f. Respect for and promotion of the right to development; g. Respect for and promotion of equal rights and opportunities for women and men; h. Respect for and promotion of the right of everyone to freedom of expression, opinion and information; i.. Adherence to the principles of freedom, justice, democracy, tolerance, solidarity, cooperation, pluralism, cultural diversity, dialogue and understanding at all levels of. 13.

(27) society and among nations; and fostered by an enabling national and international environment conducive to peace” (UN 1999; UNESCO 1995-1997; Adams, 2000).. For this study, the term culture of peace refers to “love and respect for life and one another, and acceptance of different belief systems, and human rights,” employs to justify how RE based on education for peace can prevent religious-related violence and conflict, religious discrimination, and religious intolerance.. 1.6 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY I have already stated the general purpose of this research study was to determine Haitian views on teaching RE in school for a culture of peace. The study aimed to contribute to the field of RE and peace education. The topic is the following: “An Explorative Study on Teaching Religious Education for a Culture of Peace in Haiti”. For phase one (the survey), secondary education and higher education (varsity) students were targeted as the potential population who can opine on the topic, due to their past experience with the Haitian educational system. For phase two (interviews), experts in RE including (not limited to) RE teachers, school directors, and religious leaders were selected to further analyze respondents’ views and suggest teaching methods. Since the proposed sampling technique (i.e., simple random sampling) did not go as planned, the background of the study population included Haitians who were actual and former students. The scope and the data collection method directly limited this research study. The character of research limitations is that they provide the drive for further investigation and studies to be carried out, thus, ensuring the continuous refining and expansion of knowledge. Some of the limitations of this research include the following:. 14.

(28) Firstly, the respondents did not completely or equally reflect the multi-religious nature of Haiti as half of the respondents were protestants. Haiti is largely Vodou with a large Roman Catholic population and a smaller Protestant population in a remarkable syncretic formation (Simpson, 1945). This one-sided domination of the research respondents by people of the same faith and, presumably, with a similar outlook on life, would, in no small measure, influence the outcome of the research.. Secondly, the respondents did not represent the age categories of the Haitian population enough as the majority fell into young adults (n=255). Although this did not affect the outcome of the study, however it prevented the study to provide comparative analysis on view points of different age categories.. Thirdly, the convenience sampling which involves sending emails (including Facebook messages) directly to respondents precluded the survey which would have produced a richer and more indepth data and would have afforded my opinions of people more knowledgeable on the matter. The method of data collection immediately disqualifies certain categories of people, particularly those without internet access. In addition, the limitation of respondents to secondary and varsity students, members of a sub-culture, markedly different from the general Haitian culture in certain aspects, has greatly impacted the diversity of responses.. 15.

(29) 1.7 RATIONALE AND SIGNIFICANCE Rational to undertaking this study is reflected on the importance of RE in undermining religious discrimination in Haiti. Thereby teaching RE (as a tool to prevent and resolve conflict) would play a significant role in the emergence of a culture a peace among Haitians. This study is important since it is hope to contribute in raising students’ awareness about religion and providing them with an understanding of human diversity, the complexities of social and cultural systems of thought, and the human pursuit of meaning.. Throughout human history, religious issues have caused conflicts within nations (Huntington, 1996; Pew Conference Report, 2003); traditional or religious value primarily reflecting people attitude towards life and the world. People with different traditional or religious value need to be more equipped with adequate understanding as well as act responsibly towards those values in order to avoid less conflict and promote peace. Take for instance what just happened recently in France, the satirical magazine Charlie Hebdo in Paris was attack by some Islamic faithful. While publishing cartoons mocking the Prophet Mohamed in the western media views is constitute as free speech. On the other hand, many in the eastern media see the Muhammad cartoons published by Charlie Hebdo as provocative. “The attack on Charlie Hebdo is a reason to think seriously and take measures to prevent terrorism and radicalism in Kazakhstan,” wrote the Kazakhstan’s New Times outlet while trying to link the attack in Paris to the threat of blowback from Kazakh nationalists fighting in Syria and Iraq (Paraszczuk, 2015, para 37). This is the ultimate evidence that religious sensitivity (tolerance and understanding included) is not the concern of religious adept alone but a concern of all nation and social sectors. We could not neglect religion by no means since it can contribute greatly to both conflict and peace.. 16.

(30) Another example of the importance of this study is the conflict that exists between Haiti and Dominican Republic where the Dominican is using violence against the Haitian and the Haitian responds by hatred. Therefore, teaching RE for a culture peace is imperative to the nation and it should be taught in schools, especially learning about religion. Szego (2014) noted religion is imbedded in the study of history, sociology, art, geography politics and philosophy and advocated for the study of religion as it facilitates better communication of people from differing cultural backgrounds. The American Academy of Religion (AAR), the world’s largest association of scholars who research and teach topics related to religion, concerns about the widespread illiteracy about religion, the consequences that stem from it, it provides a religious studies approach to teaching about religion in public schools (2010). This religious studies perspective (or guidelines) is intended to introduce students to the vast array of faith-based expressions that exists within and between traditions with the aim of deepening understanding about religious diversity and the roles that religion plays in political, economic, and cultural life across time (AAR, 2010, p. 4).. I believe if Haitian students are well educated into inter-faith approach, this can overcome religious illiteracy thus religious attack would reduce. As Müller puts it, “Anyone who knows only one religion knows nothing about religion” (Chidester, 1994 p. 37). Being equipped with knowledge from different religious beliefs can enable the students to understand each other in school, in the society, and the world. Multi-faith and inter-faith education is also an important part of global citizenship. With that being said, RE should not be ignored since religion illuminates us on who we are, why we have certain way of living, and where we are from as well as where we are at now (e.g., past, present, even future more or less) (Hick, 1963; Hood et al., 2005). 17.

(31) In the classroom, RE can provoke challenging questions about the ultimate meaning and purpose of life, beliefs about God, the self and the nature of reality, issues of right and wrong and what it means to be human. It develops pupils’ knowledge and understanding of Christianity, other principal religions, other religious traditions and other world views that offer answers to questions such as these. It offers opportunities for personal reflection and spiritual development. It enhances pupils’ awareness and understanding of religions and beliefs, teachings, practices and forms of expression, as well as of the influence of religion on individuals, families, communities and cultures. RE encourages pupils to learn from different religions, beliefs, values and traditions while exploring their own beliefs and questions of meaning. It challenges pupils to reflect on, consider, analyze, interpret and evaluate issues of truth, belief, faith and ethics and to communicate their responses. RE encourages pupils to develop their sense of identity and belonging. It enables them to flourish individually within their communities and as citizens in a pluralistic society and global community. RE has an important role in preparing pupils for adult life, employment and lifelong learning. It enables pupils to develop respect for and sensitivity to others, in particular those whose faiths and beliefs are different from their own. It promotes discernment and enables pupils to combat prejudice. (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 2004).. Since education has both suffered from and contributed to violent conflict in Haiti, an incorporation of peace education into RE can be a tool to help students deal with conflict in nonviolent and creative ways; and promote tolerance and understanding to develop citizen who are in harmony with their environment. Overall, the benefit of teaching RE and by integrating it in the school curriculum learning can occur in a number of areas such as spiritual, moral, social and. 18.

(32) cultural development, key skills and thinking skills. Therefore, with Catholic and Protestant school that exit in Haiti a multi-faith RE syllabus is encouraged for the purpose of helping pupils to view the past present and future world events concomitant to religion. Another important aspect of teaching RE is that it can further pupils’ reading literacy (reading fluency and comprehension) which I believe can also promote the five strands of the language arts such as reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing (this topic is not intended to develop here). Thus, every pupil has the right to be taught on RE to encourage critical thinking skills and such subject cannot be neglected in the school curriculum because it covers the essence of human life.. 19.

(33) CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW. 2.1 CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND OF RE IN HAITI It is necessary to have an overview of Haiti religious history for a better understanding on the context of religion, education, culture, and RE and even politic in Haitian society. Historians like Hayes and Robinson (2001) affirm that “Haiti’s historical events have influenced the way in which Haitians view themselves. In order term, we are the products of our past history.. 2.1.1 History of Religion in Haiti The first inhabitants of Haiti (The Tainos) worshipped deities known as Zemis, which are objects believed to be the dwelling of spirit and to possess magic potency. The religion of the Tainos was reported by the first missionary who came to the island, Father Ramon Pané. This later was commissioned by Columbus to study the religious beliefs of the indigenous people of Hispaniola and Puerto Rico. (Rouse, 1992, p.13). The Spanish introduced Christianity to the Island on December 5, 1492. The following years witnessed the evangelic effort of Catholicism towards the natives and the extermination of this population through disease and slavery. African slaves, brought to work in their place, were introduced to Christianity, too. Catholic missionaries were responsible for preaching to the Island inhabitants. (Rouse, 1992; Louis, 2007; Farmer, 2011; Heinl & Heinl, 2005). When the African slaves were brought to Americas to work on plantations, they brought Vodou with them. Under French dominance, Catholic priests were sent to the colony to civilize the slaves 20.

(34) and convert them into Christianity. However, these attempts were unsuccessful because the system dehumanized the African slaves and these later continued to practice Vodou clandestinely. Even though, the code noir of 1685 prohibited the practice of other religious beliefs in the colony. The ‘Cérémonie du Bois-Caïman’ of 1791 is a result of the practice of Vodou during the colonial era. (Rigaud, 1969; Dayan, 1996; Debien, 1967; Heinl & Heinl, 2005; Louis, 2007; Murrell, 2010; Rey, 2005; Schneider, 2012) It is said that they were Protestants in the colony but they were not allowed to evangelize because the general concordat signed between Roman Catholic and the European colonizers had been reinforced by the decree.. After Haiti declared its independence in 1804, the Vatican withdrew its (European) priests and refused to recognize the world’s first Black republic. After the overthrow of the father of the nation, Jean Jacques Dessalines, in 1806 some missionaries returned. The Catholic Church and the Haitian government finally signed a concordat on March 28, 1860 after years of negotiations. The concordat provided that the Catholic Church would have the special protection. (Heinl & Heinl, 2005; Louis, 2007). When the Vatican decided to acknowledge Haiti, it tried to impose what some saw as a third-class Concordat. It finally established relations through this 1860 concordat (Pius IX was determined to put Haiti under an Apostolic Prefect). A humiliating treatment of Vatican regarding Haiti: After being snubbed for half a century Haiti was now to be treated as a mission territory rather than a normal country with dioceses.. General Fabre-Nicolas Geffrard, a member of the mulatto elite, was president of Haiti from 1859 to 1867. As he was eager to replace Vodou, signed the country’s first concordat, which made 21.

(35) Catholicism the official religion. An amendment to this concordat in 1862 granted the Church “an important role in secular education” (Haggerty, 1989). Meanwhile, Haiti held fast and finally got its dioceses, but at a price. The main text of the concordat stipulates that the Government shall give the Haitian dioceses “a suitable annual allowance in excess of the usual state treasury funds”. (Concordat Watch). Two other concordats have followed since 1860: Papa Doc’s Concordat of 1966 (which allowed Dr. François Duvalier [Papa Doc] to nominate his own men as bishops and archbishops), and Baby Doc’s concordat of 1984.. In 1866, another amendment effectively suspended Articles 4 and 5 of this concordat. Thus, the second concordat let Dr. François Duvalier [Papa Doc] nominate seven key clerics, thus ensuring their personal loyalty to him. It also stipulates that future appointments should be “preferentially to members of the indigenous clergy”. Both these measures helped bring the Haitian church under Papa Doc’s control. However, the third concordat revokes the privilege granted to the father of Jean-Claude [Baby Doc] Duvalier of nominating senior clerics. It restores articles 4 and 5 of the country’s first concordat and thereby returns the appointment of archbishops and bishops to the Vatican. (Concordat Watch).. After the American Occupation ended in 1934, there was a constant struggle for power between the Catholic Church and the followers of Vodou. The small number of priests and members of religious institutes in 1930s ministered mainly to the urban elite. Until the mid-20th century, the majority of priests were francophone Europeans, particularly distant from their rural parishioners. Roman Catholic clergy were generally hostile toward Vodou, and they led two major campaigns against Vodou religion in 1896 and 1941. During these campaigns, the government outlawed. 22.

(36) Vodou services, and Catholics destroyed Vodou religions objects. Later on, Nationalists and others began to resent the Roman Catholic Church because of its alliance with the mulatto elites. François Duvalier opposed the Catholic Church and expelled the archbishop of Port-au-Prince, the Jesuit order and numerous priests between 1959 and 1961. (Farmer, 2011; Haggerty, 1989; Heinl & Heinl, 2005). As for Protestantism, its first settlement was established in Tortuga Island under the agreement of Le Vasseur and De Poincy in 1661. The protestant lived for 12 years in the colony. Later on Protestantism was completely excluded. Protestant faith was reinstalled until after the independence of Haiti, particularly under the presidency of Alexandre Pétion in 1816 with the visit of Stephen de Grellet and John Hancock, two Quaker evangelists. Later on, the Wesleyan society came to Haiti because they thought there was a great need for the Gospel of God in Haiti. These missionaries were well received by Pétion, Christophe and Boyer. After the death of Pétion in March 1818, a sudden fury of persecution burst forth against the Methodist Christians and the congregation was dispersed. President Boyer expelled the Wesleyan missionaries from the country. (Louis, 2007). In 1890, Louis Joseph Janvier tried to promote protestant vision for Haiti. However, it was under the François Duvalier regime that protestant enjoyed peace and growth. Later on, the constitution of March 29, 1987 restores the peace and guarantees religious freedom to citizens (Article 30 of the Haitian Constitution). Today, both Catholicism and Protestantism, and other religious minorities enjoy freedom within the Haitian society. Though Vodou has gained greater respect and is widely appreciated as a source of Haitian pride and identity and driving force behind Haiti’s rich. 23.

(37) artistic culture (Melton & Baumann, 2010); however, both Catholicism and Protestantism are campaigning for the eradication of Vodou in Haiti.. This table below provides a brief religious history of Haiti from Columbus discovery of Haiti to contemporary Haiti.. Table 2.1.1 Brief Religious History of Haiti 1492 1511 1685 1791 1804 1807 1816 1818 1860 1890 1904-1960 1915-1934 1930 1935 1959-1971 1987 1997 2003 2010 2014. Columbus lands in Haiti with Catholicism Vodou religion entered Haiti with the African slaves Code Noir recognized Roman Catholic and Apostolic as unique religion of the colony Ceremony of Bois Caiman - a Vodou ceremony against slavery Haiti became Independent thank to the Vodou religion First Protestant group to enter Haiti - The English Wesleyan Mission President Pétion welcomed the two Quaker evangelists Persecution of the English Wesleyan Mission, President Broyer encouraged their departure. They came back 18 years later. Haiti and the Vatican sign a Concordat Promotion of Protestant vision for Haiti by Haitian intellectuals and nationalists Separation Era (i.e. between Haitian government and Catholic) US Protestant missionaries enter Haiti under the US Occupation Haitian intellectuals started to defend Vodou as a national religion Decree-law against the Vodou rituals Protestant enjoyed peace and growth Decree-law for religious freedom Creation of KOSANBA - a scholarly association for the study of Vodou Haitian Vodou has been recognized as an official religion Earthquake, attack on Haitian Vodou, emergence of the Islam religion, creation of Religion for Peace Chibly Langlois nominated Cardinal of Haiti by Pope Francis. Adopted from Rethinking the Issues of Religious Education in Haiti from a Post-Colonial Perspective (Marc, 2019). 2.1.2 An Anthropological–Historical Analysis between Vodou and Christianity What is known as Vodou today are assemblages of beliefs and practices of African Traditional Religion and culture. These heritages were transported to Haiti with African slaves who in a bid 24.

(38) to preserve their identity through a continuous revitalization of their spirituality combined traditional African beliefs and practices with catholic practices and certain beliefs to create the Haitian Vodou as we know it (Simpson,1945). During the peak of the slave period, when slaves reach Haiti, they were prevented from practicing their traditional religions, in fact, they were prohibited from gathering for any reasons for fear of a revolt. The slave masters were Christians and Catholics who collectively decided to force catechism and Catholicism on the slaves as a means of preserving the institution of slavery, (Alexandre, 2015). Although forced into Christianity, the slaves were not taught the values of equality, fairness and justice which Christianity promotes for fear of encouraging the slaves to question their treatment as lesser beings, (Alexandre, 2015). The slaves, however, preserved their original beliefs by finding and blending the similarities between components of their traditional religion and Catholicism. These presumed converted slaves held the decisive gathering known as the Bois Caiman which marked the beginning of the Haitian revolution. Christianity on the other hand, can be traced to life and the teachings of one Man-Jesus Christ of Nazareth. Born of a virgin Mary and Joseph through the ministering of the holy spirit, (Matthew 1:18, King James version). Jesus’ miracles and teachings exposed the hypocrisy of the Roman church, the elders and authorities and was viewed as a threat to the power of the state. The state and the church there conspired and killed Jesus, (Matthew 27:12, King James version). After his death, his teachings, worldview and lifestyle were formalized, through some gradual informal evolution into what is known as Christianity. Analysis of both religions suggest that religions often emerge out of some form of social chaos, repression or very horrifying experience to create change or provide some kind of hope for better days. Importantly, these changes often alter the state of things, particularly, the social balance of society and threatens the state power structure. This was the case of Vodou and Christianity. There often emerges. 25.

(39) antagonist relationship between the new religion and existing religions and the state often uses its whole might to persecute and discourage love, sympathy and empathy and support for the new religion. Christianity faced severe persecution from the state. This was clearly seen in the killings of Jesus and his followers. In the same vein, Vodou faced serious persecution from the state and Christianity, and this was seen in the repressions and prohibitive laws made to end the religion. In addition, there is often a carefully designed demonization or a conscious misinterpretation and misinformation of the public about the practices and beliefs of the new religion to make people hate it. In the case of Vodou, the entertainment industry backed by the governments of North America demonized Vodou religion thus, damaging its reputation, (Hebblethwaite, 2014). “In fact, a particular website listed 40 films that relate to Vodou and they are all in the horror genre” (Hebblethwaite, 2014, p.7). But like all truths, the persecuted religion often has strength in their collective misery and soon rise above their demonized status. This was clearly exemplified in the historical emergence of Christianity and Vodou.. 2.1.3 Historical Conflicts between Christian and Vodou in Haiti Conflict riddled the historical evolution of Christianity and Vodou in Haiti mainly because of their diametrically opposed world views, beliefs and practices, as well as the fact that Christianity, at its core, supported the inhumane institution of slavery and servitude in Haiti, whereas Vodou supported radicalized liberation. In other words, Christianity, the religion of the oppressor wanted to maintain the status quo and ensured slaves were tranquil in their sufferings whereas Vodou, native to the slaves’ spirituality, although a clever fusion of numerous elements of African traditional religions native to different parts of the black continent, desired a new social balance, one particularly receptive to the idea of equal humanity. This antagonistic relationship pervades. 26.

(40) the doctrinal postures of both religions and trickles down to the behavioral expressions of their devotees. With the evolutionary development of Haiti came the intensification of this, subtler, sublime and sometimes overt, confrontations between Vodou and Christianity which have been expressed in physical, ideological and political dimensions (Hebblethwaite, 2014). In briefly touching these confrontations from the afore listed dimensions, it will be important to state that in the early Haitian state, it was difficult to draw a clear demarcation between the state and the church since the state declared Christianity generally, and Catholicism, particularly as its official religion and since the catholic church used the state as its instrument of domination over all other forms of religious expression (Hebblethwaite, 2014). it is therefore safe to say that the conflict between Vodou and Christianity was as well conflict between the state and Vodou. The foregoing statement would be seen clearly in the conflicts between the both religions. It can be inferred that Vodou had always had a peaceful and calm disposition. Its expression of radicality had always been to injustices, maltreatment and repressions of rights, we will attempt to validate this with a wealth of data in later paragraphs. This means that Christianity had always been in the offensive position which Vodouists have always occupied the defensive positions in these confrontations. Ample research and historical accounts bear testimony to this fact. The first phase of these confrontations was ideological. Here, the slave owners in Haiti, knowing that the traditional religion of the slaves had a uniting strength which could rally the slaves together to revolt, prohibited all gatherings and deemed it compulsory for all slaves to be baptized and Christianized. The aim of this was to create a conflict of spirituality between their emerging personality and their other self, an internal selfconflict which could manifest in a collective estrangement (Alexandre, 2015). “A colonial administration composed of bureaucrats, soldiers and police maintained the status quo for the plantation owners, business owner’s and shareholders in France” (Hebblethwaite, 2014, p.7).. 27.

(41) Castaldo (2006, p.38) further confirms my argument when he stated that “the roman catholic religion was the only legal religion”. Following article 3 of the 1985 Black Code, he added that article 2, in the same Black Code stated that “all slaves who will be in our islands will be baptized and instructed in the catholic, apostolic and Roman religion, (Hebblethwaite, 2014). More so, the North American entertainment industry backed by their governments demonized Vodou religion and practices. Thus, damaging its reputation among many. In fact, a particular website featured over 40 films that relate to Vodou and all were in the horror genre” (Castaldo 2006, p.38). This began the suppression of African traditional religions. This immediately led the slaves to incorporate elements of Catholicism in their practices in order to masquerade their traditional worship and practices as Christianity, as well as to keep in touch with their African identity through their spirituality. This ideological conflict quickly took a political dimension, manifested clearly in various decrees aimed at eliminating Vodou worship completely in Haiti. According to (Hebblethwaite, 2014), government, over centuries in Dominican Republic and Haiti, have dealt blows to Vodou practice and culture in seemingly endless cycles”. Ramsey (2011) adds that the hostility against Vodou practice created the impression that Vodou threatened the power and hegemony of the state and the state religion, Christianity. In other words, Vodou was treated as the usurper. Haitian presidents, according to (Ramsey, 2011), including Boyer (1818-1843), Geffrard (1859-1867) and Pierrot (1885-1886) enacted laws that criminalized Vodou practices. As if this was not devastating enough, Vodou was banned by government laws from contributing to the public domain (Deren, 1953; Dubois, 2013; Ramsey, 2011). US invasion of Haiti intensified these political suppressions more than the leaders of Haiti did. According to Dubois (2013), “worshippers captured during Vodou ceremony by the US marines led by Faustin Wikkus were sentenced to 6 months’ hard labor in the project to construct a new police headquarters”. There. 28.

(42) was also a systematic exclusion of Vodou worshippers from state positions and functions all in a bid to discourage practice. All the above attempts forced Vodou devotees into clandestine meetings and gatherings but never stopped Vodou practice. The persistence of Vodou practice despite its ideological and political adversities resulted in a more physical confrontation, “in 1941 the antisuperstitious attacks on Vodou were carried out by authorities of the state and the roman catholic church” (Ramsey, 2011, p.9). During this period, members of the catholic church, including the state security machineries, destroyed the properties of Vodouists which included temples, sacred objects drums, alters and fell sacred trees. In fact, an oath of renunciation was imposed (Hebblethwaite, 2014). Again, after the Duvalier period in 1986, Vodou priests who supported or were presumed to be in support of Duvalier were attacked (Beauvoir & Dominique, 2003). According to Hebblethwaite et al. (2012, p.9), “in a more recent attack, 40 Vodou priests and devotees were killed in 2010 at the beginning of the cholera outbreak. They were blamed for the disease and killed by an angry mob”. The evolution of Haiti is thus, replete with religious conflict between Christianity and Vodou showing a clear antagonism of the church in connivance with the state against a more defensive and calmer Vodou.. 2.1.4 Vodou Conflict and Cooperation While the survival of Vodou as a religion in Haiti has resulted in inextricable conflicts, Vodou religion itself has provided the motivation for certain slaves uprising and conflicts. Vodou religion was instrumental in mobilizing slaves for the Haitian revolution which led to the independence of Haiti. According to Alexandre, J. (2015), on the night of August 14, 1791, in the middle of the forest called Bois caiman (alligator woods), the slaves held the last meeting to complete their plans for a revolution to be led by Boukman. A black pig was sacrificed and everyone in assistance. 29.

(43) swore blindly to obey the orders of Boukman, the leader of the rebellion. It is important to note that the gathering was one of several gatherings dedicated to Vodou worship which endowed the slaves with a sense of collective determination and strength. Such repetitive gatherings united the slaves through worship and practices. It has been stated earlier that Vodou has a calm and peaceful disposition. According to Alexandre (2015), its devotees are twice likely to seek peace and cooperation than conflict. This is reflected in its smooth integration of catholic doctrines and practices into its own. According to Pierre-Jerome in Alexandre (2015), catholic prayers such as “hail Mary” and the “Pater Noster” are used before transitioning to the prayer to the Lwa during their services. This shows Vodou’s high sense of respect and acceptance of practices from other religions as novel and respectable enough to be integrated into its own. This is unlike the apprehensive demonization which other religions often subject practices of others to. Again, Vodou devotees are partly Christians often times and completely takes part in their Christian activities. This implies a high tendency for Vodou devotees to band together with others in cooperate symphony than to fan the embers of conflict. Unlike Protestantism and its clear promotion of capitalist individualism, traces of which is scattered among all Christian communities, in varying degrees which often leads to separation, loosed and weak unity, Vodou which is rooted in African traditional togetherness creates a sense of brotherhood and community (Alexander, 2015). It is this feature which made possible the unification of slaves from several parts of Africa. That communal cooperation inherent in all of them banded them together. The same communal cooperation weaved the fabric of Vodou, hence, making it amenable to cooperation than conflict. It is this cooperation which often unites Vodou devotees in conflict against injustice. According to Trouillot (1977), the slaves of saint Domingue, many of who served the Vodou spirits against captivity. Similarly, Hebblethwaite et al. (2012) remarked that through colonial epoch, Vodou. 30.