內外部動機對台灣非營利組織工作滿意度影響之分析

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(1)CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION This chapter provides an insight of the study, including the background of the study, the purpose of the study, research questions and hypotheses, the significance of the study, and the delimitations and limitations.. Background of the Study A global civil society has emerged and taken charge of important issues, like war and peace, economic and social rights, and natural resources (Kaldor, Albrow, Anheier, & Glasius, 2007). The United Nations has also pointed out prosperity can only be achieved when there is a partnership with the civil society (Annan, 1999). Indeed, nonprofit organizations have been active in a broad range. People can easily notice the importance of the third sector from their rescue for the emergent disaster and casualty, such as Southern California wildfires, hurricane Katrina, Indonesia tsunami, September 11 terrorist attacks, the 921 earthquake in Taiwan, etc. Furthermore, nonprofit organizations are involved but not limited in poverty reduction, environmental protection, human rights, social service, and community development as well. It is said that the twenty-first century is the century of social welfare (Drucker, 1990). Although nonprofit organizations play such critical roles in the society, however, they have a difficult position in employee job satisfaction. According to Vinokur-Kaplan’s (1996) research, nonprofit organizations are short of motivators to continue increasing employee job satisfaction. She pointed out factors such as promotion opportunities could highly predict employee job satisfaction in nonprofit organizations. But from her longitudinal study, the opportunity for promotion is declining. Employee job satisfaction is one of the most important factors for organizational context which improves competitiveness and efficiency (Borzaga &. 1.

(2) Tortia, 2006). Nonprofit organizations have to take crucial responsibility of the society and achieve their mission in an efficient and effective way. Moreover, they are confronted with the competition from the for-profit business and other nonprofit organizations (Rose-Ackerman, 1996; Salamon, 1993, 2005). Nevertheless, their staff tends to have more workload and pressure but less compensation which may affect job satisfaction as well (Borzaga & Tortia, 2006; Mirvis, 1992). Therefore, there’s a need to study which workers’ motivators can influence employee job satisfaction. In this way, relevant incentives and other measures related to motivation can be designed and provided to employees in order to raise job satisfaction. According to previous studies, employees in nonprofit organizations are more non-monetary oriented (Benz, 2005; Borzaga & Tortia, 2006). A large proportion of the staff in nonprofit organizations said that they worked in the third sector in order to try to better the society instead of pursuing money and benefits (Mann, 2006). Some researchers recognize that intrinsic incentives motivate employees in nonprofit organizations more than pecuniary reward benefits (Benz, 2005; Mirvis & Hackett, 1983).. Purposes of the Study Studies comparing employee job satisfaction in nonprofit and for-profit organizations suggest that the difference in compensation and benefits provided by the nonprofit and for-profit organizations is not the main cause of the discrepancy of employee job satisfaction in these two sectors (Benz, 2005; Borzaga & Tortia, 2006; Mirvis & Hackett, 1983). That nonprofit organizations are organized differently from the for-profit organizations, inclusive of mission, products or service provided, target constituency, and so on will lead to different human resource management, especially workers’ motivation (Leete, 2000). Hence, it is worthwhile to further study tailored motivators determining employee job satisfaction in nonprofit organizations. Besides, 2.

(3) among all types of organizations, religious nonprofit organizations score the highest in employee job satisfaction (Borzaga & Tortia, 2006). It is interesting to further investigate whether the type of nonprofit, namely the religious and non-religious nonprofit organizations, makes a difference to job satisfaction. However, research on the relevant issue is not much. The main purpose of this study is to explore which workers’ motivators have an impact on job satisfaction in religious and nonreligious nonprofit organizations. In addition, the study tests whether the type of religious and non-religious nonprofit organizations influences job satisfaction. Moreover, some personal characteristics are considered to see if they affect job satisfaction as well. The study is conducted through the approach of case studies in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association.. Research Questions In order to achieve the objective of the study, a questionnaire measuring job satisfaction and motivation was designed and distributed to employees working in the selected case nonprofits. The questionnaire used in the present study adopted the Work Preference Inventory (Amabile, Conti, Coon, Lazenby, & Herron, 1994) to measure workers’ motivation and the facets in Job Satisfaction Survey (Spector, 1997) to assess employee job satisfaction. The Work Preference Inventory is designed to assess an individual’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientation. In addition, intrinsic motivation is subdivided into two categories as challenge and enjoyment while extrinsic motivation is subdivided into outward and compensation. In terms of the employee job satisfaction, Job Satisfaction Survey comprises nine facets of job satisfaction which are pay, promotion, supervision, fringe benefits, contingent rewards, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication. However, according to the expert valid from Mr. Cheng-Dao Xu, a manager working 3.

(4) in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan, who pointed out that promotion and contingent rewards were not common in their organization. Asking the satisfying level of a dimension not existing in the nonprofit is difficult for employees to response. Besides, some interviewees in Chang’s study (2007) also agreed that promotion opportunities were very rare in the nonprofit organizations in Taiwan. Thus, these two aspects were taken out from the facets of job satisfaction in the questionnaire. Research questions are addressed to determine the extent to which the different dimensions of workers’ motivation and type of nonprofits can influence employee job satisfaction in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association. Four main questions are addressed to reach this issue. 1. Is there any difference in the seven facets of job satisfaction between the religious nonprofit organization, the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan, and the non-religious nonprofit organization, Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association? 2. What influence do intrinsic motivation, namely challenge and enjoyment, and extrinsic motivation, namely outward and compensation, have on the seven facets of job satisfaction in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association? 3. Does the type of nonprofits, namely the religious and non-religious organizations, affect the seven facets of job satisfaction in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association? 4. Do personal background characteristics, including gender, age, marital status, position, tenure, and highest degree earned have an impact on the seven facets of job satisfaction in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association? 4.

(5) Research Hypotheses Based on the previously mentioned research questions, 12 research hypotheses are stated. 1. In terms of the first research question addressing whether there is any difference in the seven facets of job satisfaction between the religious nonprofit organization, the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan, and the non-religious nonprofit organization, Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association, the first null hypothesis is stated as following. Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference in job satisfaction between the religious nonprofit organization, the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan, and the non-religious nonprofit organization, Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association. Due to the fact that there are seven facets of job satisfaction, hypothesis 1-1, 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 1-6, and 1-7 are used to further address the first hypothesis that between the religious nonprofit organization, the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan, and the non-religious nonprofit organization, Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association, there is no significant difference in job satisfaction of pay, supervision, fringe benefits, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication respectively. 2. In terms of the second research question addressing what influence intrinsic motivation, namely challenge and enjoyment, and extrinsic motivation, namely outward and compensation, have on the seven facets of job satisfaction in nonprofit organizations, the null hypotheses are stated as following. Hypothesis 2: There is no significant relationship between challenge in intrinsic motivation and job satisfaction in nonprofit organizations. Due to the fact that there are seven facets of job satisfaction, hypothesis 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6, and 2-7 are used to further address the second hypothesis that 5.

(6) there is no significant relationship between challenge in intrinsic motivation and job satisfaction of pay, supervision, fringe benefits, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication respectively in nonprofit organizations. Hypothesis 3: There is no significant relationship between enjoyment in intrinsic motivation and job satisfaction in nonprofit organizations. Due to the fact that there are seven facets of job satisfaction, hypothesis 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, and 3-7 are used to further address the third hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between enjoyment in intrinsic motivation and job satisfaction of pay, supervision, fringe benefits, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication respectively in nonprofit organizations. Hypothesis 4: There is no significant relationship between outward in extrinsic motivation and job satisfaction in nonprofit organizations. Due to the fact that there are seven facets of job satisfaction, hypothesis 4-1, 4-2, 4-3, 4-4, 4-5, 4-6, and 4-7 are used to further address the fourth hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between outward in extrinsic motivation and job satisfaction of pay, supervision, fringe benefits, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication respectively in nonprofit organizations. Hypothesis 5: There is no significant relationship between compensation in extrinsic motivation and job satisfaction in nonprofit organizations. Due to the fact that there are seven facets of job satisfaction, hypothesis 5-1, 5-2, 5-3, 5-4, 5-5, 5-6, and 5-7 are used to further address the fifth hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between compensation in extrinsic motivation and job satisfaction of pay, supervision, fringe benefits, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication respectively in nonprofit organizations. 3. In terms of the third research question addressing whether the type of nonprofits, namely the religious and non-religious organizations, affects the seven 6.

(7) facets of job satisfaction, the null hypotheses are stated as following. Hypothesis 6: There is no significant difference between the type of nonprofits and job satisfaction. Due to the fact that there are seven facets of job satisfaction, hypothesis 6-1, 6-2, 6-3, 6-4, 6-5, 6-6, and 6-7 are used to further address the sixth hypothesis that there is no significant difference between the and type of nonprofits and job satisfaction of pay, supervision, fringe benefits, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication respectively. 4. In terms of the fourth research question addressing whether personal background characteristics, including gender, age, marital status, position, tenure, and highest degree earned have an impact on the seven facets of job satisfaction, the null hypotheses are stated as following. Hypothesis 7: There is no significant difference between gender and job satisfaction. Due to the fact that there are seven facets of job satisfaction, hypothesis 7-1, 7-2, 7-3, 7-4, 7-5, 7-6, and 7-7 are used to further address the seventh hypothesis that there is no significant difference between gender and job satisfaction of pay, supervision, fringe benefits, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication respectively. Hypothesis 8: There is no significant difference between position and job satisfaction. Due to the fact that there are seven facets of job satisfaction, hypothesis 8-1, 8-2, 8-3, 8-4, 8-5, 8-6, and 8-7 are used to further address the eighth hypothesis that there is no significant difference between position and job satisfaction of pay, supervision, fringe benefits, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication respectively. 7.

(8) Hypothesis 9: There is no significant difference between age and job satisfaction. Due to the fact that there are seven facets of job satisfaction, hypothesis 9-1, 9-2, 9-3, 9-4, 9-5, 9-6, and 9-7 are used to further address the ninth hypothesis that there is no significant difference between age and job satisfaction of pay, supervision, fringe benefits, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication respectively. Hypothesis 10: There is no significant difference between marital status and job satisfaction. Due to the fact that there are seven facets of job satisfaction, hypothesis 10-1, 10-2, 10-3, 10-4, 10-5, 10-6, and 10-7 are used to further address the tenth hypothesis that there is no significant difference between marital status and job satisfaction of pay, supervision, fringe benefits, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication respectively. Hypothesis 11: There is no significant difference between the highest degree earned and job satisfaction. Due to the fact that there are seven facets of job satisfaction, hypothesis 11-1, 11-2, 11-3, 11-4, 11-5, 11-6, and 11-7 are used to further address the eleventh hypothesis that there is no significant difference between the highest degree earned and job satisfaction of pay, supervision, fringe benefits, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication respectively. Hypothesis 12: There is no significant difference between tenure and job satisfaction. Due to the fact that there are seven facets of job satisfaction, hypothesis 12-1, 12-2, 12-3, 12-4, 12-5, 12-6, and 12-7 are used to further address the twelfth hypothesis that there is no significant difference between tenure and job satisfaction 8.

(9) of pay, supervision, fringe benefits, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication respectively.. Significance of the Study It is important to distinguish different types of the nonprofit organizations so that researchers can deal with specific dimensions of nonprofit organizations in a more practicable way (Leete, 2000). However, from the searching in the database, ABI/INFORM GLOBAL [ProQuest], there is hardly literature coping with the issue that whether religious or non-religious organizations bring about a difference to job satisfaction. Neither is the impact of workers’ motivators on employee job satisfaction in religious and nonreligious nonprofit organizations. Employee job satisfaction has been a popular research interest for decades (Harpaz, 1983; Locke, 1984; Saal & Knight, 1995; Spector, 1997). Though the discussion of whether job satisfaction can lead to better performance in enterprise is controversial, it is more widely proved that job satisfaction can influence performance through certain moderator, such as affective-cognitive consistency (Schleicher & Watt, 2004). Better performance can be concerned as achieving the mission more efficiently and effectively in nonprofit organizations. Therefore, it is crucial to study employee job satisfaction in the third sector, and how motivation influence job satisfaction as well. In addition, relevant study in Taiwan is few and far between. Through the present study using a quantitative approach, the statistical data will be significant to the case nonprofits. The research findings of the study may help point out the problem in job satisfaction. And then, it could provide improving methods through appropriate motivational incentives or other measures related to motivation to the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association. Other nonprofits may also take reference from the findings of this study to seek out the potential difficulties in job satisfaction existing in their organizations. 9.

(10) Delimitations and Limitations Delimitations There are two major delimitations placed in this study. First of all, the study adopts a case study approach. It is delimited to the case organizations which are the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association. Therefore, the research finding cannot be generalized to other nonprofits. Besides, the study is delimited to assess the impact of motivation on job satisfaction in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association. The study is supposed to give a clear explanation about how intrinsic and extrinsic motivation influence job satisfaction. Limitations Due to the constraint of time frame and budget, a questionnaire developed by the researcher was used in the study though it was based on theories and some opinions were gathered from experts. Moreover, the pilot test only included 20 employees working in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association. When given sufficient resources, the instruments should need more tests.. 10.

(11) CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter provides a review of relevant literature that assists the researcher to address the impact of motivation on job satisfaction in religious and non-religious nonprofit organizations. At first, it provides an insight of nonprofit organizations and an overview of the third sector in Taiwan. Then it moves to theories and measurements of job satisfaction and workers’ motivation. The chapter continues by focusing on the relationship of workers’ motivation and job satisfaction. Finally, some research findings examining motivation and job satisfaction in nonprofits are provided.. Nonprofit Organizations Introduction of nonprofit organizations The definition of nonprofit organizations given by Hall (1987) is that nonprofit organizations are organizations having the purpose of performing public tasks demanded by the society but fulfilled neither by the government nor by for-profit organizations. They can be organized by the delegation of government and exert the influence on the direction of policy in the first, second, and third sectors. As to Ben-Ner’s (1994) definition, nonprofit organizations are “private, nongovernmental organizations that do not aim to maximize profits for distribution to their owners or controllers, but that do have some service objectives to members, users, or other beneficiaries (p. 747).” We can examine the roles of nonprofit organizations from the perspective of the public goods theory, the contract failure theory, the subsidy theory, and the consumer control theory (Hansmann, 1987). According to the public goods theory, nonprofit organizations are served to be the provider for the insufficient public goods that is the result from the government which only satisfies the requirements from the median voters. Based on the research of the contract failure theory, nonprofit. 11.

(12) organizations arise due to the fact that consumers fear the possibilities of taken advantage by the for-profit organizations that pursue the maximum profits. Since nonprofit organizations have the non-distribution constraint, consumers are able to trust the quality of the service and products supplied by nonprofit organizations. As to the proponents of the subsidy theory, they propose the idea that the subsidies from the for-profit organizations and the government make the proliferation of the nonprofit organizations possible. In terms of the consumer control theory, nonprofit organizations are formed for the consumers in order to have the direct control over the firms which they purchase service or products. In conclusion, markets and governments failure provide a niche for the development and activities of nonprofit organizations (Hansmann, 1980). Types of nonprofit organizations The structures of nonprofit organizations are quite diverse. They are not demarcated by explicit boundaries but overlapped a lot (Hansmann, 1980; Theuvsen, 2004). Hansmann (1980) proposed a classification of nonprofit organizations by their source of income and the way in which they are controlled. According to the source of income, they are distinguished as “donative” nonprofits, that the donations are the dominant source of income, and “commercial” nonprofits, that the sale of service and products from the nonprofit organizations contributes most to their income. As to the way in which nonprofit organizations are controlled, Hansmann categorized the way into “mutual” and “entrepreneurial.” Nonprofits controlled by organizations’ patrons are referred as mutual while those controlled by the board of directors are entrepreneurial. A four-way categorization of nonprofit firms with some examples can easily show the different types.. 12.

(13) Mutual. Donative. Commercial. Entrepreneurial. Common Cause National Audubon Society Political Clubs. CARE March of Dimes Art Museums. American Automobile Association Consumers Union Country Clubs. National Geographic Society Educational Testing Service Hospitals Nursing homes. Figure 2.1. Four-way categorization of nonprofit firms Source: Hansmann, 1980 The lines between these four types of nonprofit firms are blurred, and few organizations fall into certain kind of category exactly. Furthermore, there are still different ways to distinguish different types of nonprofit organizations. However, there is a necessity to identify between different typologies of nonprofit organizations. This is helpful for researcher to deal with the distinct and multifaceted of the nonprofit sector (Leete, 2000). The case organizations participating in the present study are the type of nonprofits in the domain of entrepreneurial and donative defined by Hansamann (1980). Importance of nonprofit organizations With the globalization in economy, non-state actors, nonprofit organizations included, are becoming gradually important because non-state actors can exert transnational governance while nations are still served as the primary governing units (Salamon & Anheier, 1996). More and more researchers have had studied in analyzing the functional role of nonprofit organizations in a for-profit world (e.g. Hansmann, 1980; Rose-Ackerman, 1996). It is said that nonprofit organizations have a great impact on quality of life (Wilbur, Finn, & Freeland, 1994). One of the great characteristics of nonprofit organizations is creating social value (Quarter & Richmond, 2001). Drucker (1990) even claimed nonprofit organizations as the 13.

(14) “agents for changed human beings.” Though nonprofit organizations play such significant roles, there have not been many studies on the management of their employees (Wilbur, Finn, & Freeland, 1994). Actually, human capital is the most important resource in the organization; it is the commitment, enthusiasm, intelligence, and drive of the employees that accomplish the ultimate goals (Wilbur, Finn, & Freeland, 1994). An overview of the third sector in Taiwan With the lifting of Taiwan’s Martial Law in 1987, people have been allowed to form groups to represent their interests. Consequently, there have been thriving and booming in the growth of nonprofit organizations. According to the latest figures provided by Ministry of Interior, there were total 38,044 associations in the third sector in 2006. Among them, the social nonprofit organizations count the most with the number of 28,027. Nonprofits organized after the lifting of Taiwan’s Martial Law are very different from the traditional charitable ones. They are active in a broad and pluralistic scope (Hsiao, 2003). Nonprofit organizations exert influence on various areas, such as identifying and mobilizing to meet the new and emerging needs, producing goods, providing social service, and affecting the formulation of public policy. From the website of Ministry of Interior, it is said these associations in the third sector have brought about economic growth and social development and have gone well with the national policy. Moreover, they indeed have contributed a lot to strengthen. the. function. of. social. organizations. (http://www.moi.gov.tw/outline/4_E.htm).. 14. and. make. people. unite.

(15) Job Satisfaction and Workers’ Motivation Introduction of job satisfaction Spector (1997) described job satisfaction as “how people feel about their jobs and different aspects of their jobs. It is the extent to which how people like (satisfaction) or dislike (dissatisfaction) their jobs (p.2).” Employee job satisfaction is one of the major domains in industrial-organizational psychology and organizational behavior. It is the most intensively studied subject than any other topics in organizations (Harpaz, 1983; Locke, 1984; Saal & Knight, 1995; Spector, 1997). The reason why job satisfaction has been emphasized so much is that it is associated with a number of organizational consequences (Locke, 1984). For example, job satisfaction can highly predict the employees’ turnover intent (Lambert, Hogan, & Barton, 2001). Turnover, in turn, is the main cause of the decline in productivity (Abbasi & Hollman, 2000). Koys (2001) also proposes that employee job satisfaction can bring about customer satisfaction. From Bateman and Organ’s (1983) point of view, job satisfaction can improve employee citizenship. There are studies on job dissatisfaction as well. For instance, Farrell (1983) categorized employees’ responses to job dissatisfaction as exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect. In practice, some businesses take employee job satisfaction seriously, too. Take IBM for example. It conducts opinion survey every year to check how employees feel about their jobs. Moreover, from the perspective of humanitarian, people are supposed to be treated properly and with respect. Job satisfaction can be kind of reflection whether the organizations have appropriate treatment for staff (Spector, 1997). As the time went by, there were three main trends of studies on job satisfaction. In the early 1930s, researchers focused on the effects of physical conditions of work and compensation. Later, it was switched to social factors such as the relationship with coworkers and supervision. Then, in the late 1950s, there was a 15.

(16) growing interest in work itself (Locke, 1976). Afterwards, more researchers have studied the antecedents of job satisfaction. The antecedents are mainly divided into environmental and personal ones (Spector, 1997). Measurement of job satisfaction Concerning how to measure employee job satisfaction, there are two main approaches. One is measured by a single global rating about an employee’s feeling about the job. The other is assessed by a summation score composed of several facets of the job (Robbins & Judge, 2007; Spector, 1997). The single global rating is used when the researcher’s interest lies in the overall job satisfaction. The summation score composed of several facets of the job is adopted when researchers aim to find out which aspects of the job contributing to job satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The dimension of assessing job satisfaction could include any aspects of the job. Some common facets provided by Spector (1997) are appreciation, communication, coworkers, fringe benefits, job conditions, nature if the work itself, organization itself, organization’s policies and procedures, pay, personal growth, promotion opportunities, recognition, security, and supervision. Locke (1976) also proposed several facets of job as work, pay, promotion, recognition, benefits, working conditions, supervision, coworkers, company, and management. Some of the facets proposed by the researchers are overlapped. Generally speaking, interesting jobs with proper training, task variety, independence, and job control can lead to employee job satisfaction (Barling, Iverson, & Kelloway, 2003; Bond & Bunce, 2003). Researchers can develop the facets of related interest to further explore. Locke (1976) summarized the facets of the job into four general dimensions; those are rewards, other people, nature of the work, and organizational context. Currently, there are many job satisfaction scales available to measure how the employees feel about their job. Some of the popular scales are the Job Satisfaction 16.

(17) Survey (Spector, 1994), the Job Descriptive Index (Smith, Kendal, & Hulin, 1969, cited from Spector, 1997), the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss et al.; 1967, cited from Saal & Knight, 1995), and the Faces Scale (Kunin, 1955). The Job Satisfaction Survey assesses nine facets of job satisfaction and overall satisfaction. The nine facets include pay, promotion, supervision, fringe benefits, contingent rewards, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication. Each facet contains four items. According to Spector (1997), the Job Satisfaction Survey is “relatively easy to modify.” As to the Job Descriptive Index, it assesses five facets of job, inclusive of work, pay, promotion, supervision, and coworkers. It is said to be the most popular job satisfaction scales with careful development and validation. Still, the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire measures the intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction. There are long-form and short-form versions available. In terms of the Faces Scale, it is a unique approach using the facial expression as scales to measure global job satisfaction. According to Spector (1997), there are some advantages and disadvantages of using the existing job satisfaction scales. One of the advantages is most of these scales already covers the major facets of job that researchers don’t have to spent much time and cost to develop their own scales. Besides, there have been many people used it; the levels of reliability and construct validity are acceptable. The disadvantage is that the study is limited to the existing scales developed by the designers. Motivation theory and job satisfaction With regards to which workers’ motivators cause job satisfaction, there are many different theories explaining this issue. The two-factor theory proposed by Herzberg (1959) assumed that motivators and hygiene factors would bring about satisfaction and no dissatisfaction respectively. Need theories, such as Maslow’s (1954/ 1987) hierarchy of needs, Alderfer’s (1972, cited from Saal & Knight, 1995) 17.

(18) existence, relatedness, growth theory, and McClelland’s theory of needs, suppose that people have to fulfill certain psychological or physiological level of needs through engaged in the work. However, in Locke’s (1976) value theory, job satisfaction is related more with what people want, desire, or value rather than needs. Still, Lawler (1994) presented another facet-satisfaction theory, describing the processes that determine satisfaction with the facet of job. There is also social and cognitive construction theory supporting that job satisfaction is gained from the evaluation of cognitive process, for example, the social learning theory (Bandura, 1971, cited from Saal & Knight, 1995). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation As to the measurement of workers’ motivation, according to Rainey’s (2001) study, there is no universal measurement for work motivation. Some assess by the behavior and attitudes while some evaluate through observation of an employee’s coworker. Since the present study adopts the classification of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, the following literature review will focus on this field. The intrinsic and extrinsic motivation was present in the two-factor theory proposed by Herzberg (1959) that motivators are more intrinsic oriented while hygiene factors are more extrinsic oriented. Later, Porter and Lawler (1968, cited from Gagne & Deci, 2005) and Deci (1975, 1976) further studied on intrinsic and extrinsic work motivation claiming that intrinsic motivation occurs when people do an activity for the sake of the activity itself, like the feeling of competence or control from the work, and gain spontaneous satisfaction from it while extrinsic motivation requires external consequences for the activity, such as compensation or recognition as tangible or verbal rewards. Intrinsic motivation generally attracts more attention than extrinsic motivation because intrinsic motivation endeavors to explain the pursuit of things like challenge which lack concrete external reinforcement (Harlow, Harlow, 18.

(19) & Meyer, 1950). Gagne and Deci (2005) asserted that self-determination and competence are the characteristics of intrinsic motivation. Still, some other features of intrinsic motivation are interest and excitement (Izard, 1977, cited from Amabile, Hill, Hennessey, & Tighe, 1994), task involvement (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1978, cited from Amabile, Hill, Hennessey, & Tighe, 1994), happiness, surprise, and fun (Pretty & Seligman, 1983; Reeve, Cole, & Olson, 1986). As to extrinsic motivation, researchers mainly considered that the engagement in the work is the means to some extrinsic outcomes (Calder & Staw, 1975). To conclude, Deci and Ryan (1985) suggested that people who are autonomy-oriented are more likely to be intrinsically motivated and those who are control-oriented tend to be extrinsically motivated. The social context in which people are engaged in the work will influence their orientation of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Amabile, DeJong, & Lepper, 1976; Deci, 1971). We can use different approaches, like interviews and questionnaire surveys to get to know workers’ motivation. If we can evaluate the degree to which employees are affected by intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, we should be better understand and predict motivational behavior in a variety of social situations (Amabile, Hill, Hennessey, & Tighe, 1994).. Job Satisfaction and Motivation in Nonprofit Organizations Job satisfaction in nonprofit organizations Studies have showed that the third sector is characterized by lacking in the staff and resources (Theuvsen, 2004). Employees working there are featured with less paid and work-overloaded (Handy & Katz, 1997; Mirvis & Hackett, 1983). Based on McMullen and Schellenberg’s (2003) study, 40 percent of the employees in the nonprofit organizations were not satisfied with their salary and fringe benefits; in contrast, only 20 percent of employees in the second sector had dissatisfaction with salary and fringe benefits. Compared by Preston in 1990, she found out the wages in 19.

(20) nonprofit organizations were generally lower than that in the enterprise by 10 to 15 percent. These phenomena are seemed to be detrimental to job satisfaction. However, according to previous research, job satisfaction in nonprofit organizations has been confirmed being high and even higher than other sectors. For example, Benz (2005) drawing the sample from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth in the U.S. and the British household Panel Survey verified that job satisfaction in the nonprofit organizations was higher than in their counterparts, for-profit organizations. Mirvis and Hackett (1983) got quite similar result with Benz’s that the workforce in nonprofit organizations was more satisfied with their job than those in private enterprise and government from a small sample in the U.S. Besides, Borzaga and Tortia (2006) conducted an empirical study in the social welfare and educational services in Italy. They obtained quite a high level of job satisfaction from the nonprofit sector that the average scores for non-religious nonprofit and religious nonprofit were 5.25 and 5.53 respectively when interviewees chose from a scale from one, the minimum, to seven, the maximum. Still, 72 percent of the participants who work at Goodwill Industries of Greater Grand Rapid, a nonprofit organization, reported they were satisfied with their job at Speer’s (2004) research. Among different types of organizations, religious nonprofit organizations scored the highest in job satisfaction in Borzaga and Tortia’s study (2006). Religious nonprofit organizations are the institution “manifest by their doctrine and practice basic values of a society: conceptions of behavior, thought, and attitude that are transmitted from generation to generation as the elements of life as properly lived (Van Til, 2005, p.44).” Kennedy and Bielefeld (2002) asserted that religious faith had the power to change human behavior and presumed religiously based organizations can achieve the mission more effectively than the secular organizations. However, in. 20.

(21) Borzaga and Tortia’s study (2006), they didn’t explain the difference of job satisfaction between organizations by religious faith. Religion is the key factor for the formation of the charity and voluntary organizations in the U.S. (Jeavos, 2007). Nonprofit organizations with the religious origins dominate a large proportion in the third sector in the U.S. (Grønbjerg & Never, 2004). However, compared to the nonprofits in the field of education, social service, culture, and health service, there are not many researchers drawing their attention to religious nonprofit organizations (Byrne, 1990). Workers’ motivation in nonprofit organizations Borzaga and Tortia (2006) asserted that nonprofits were organizations with “complex and distinctive structures of extrinsic and intrinsic incentives that serve to attract workers who are not predominantly driven by monetary remuneration.” Hansmann (1987) also claimed that the motivation among employees in the third sector was an important issue. It was further proven by Borzaga and Tortia (2006) that motivation could significantly influence employee job satisfaction in nonprofit organizations. They proposed that intrinsic and relational motivation exerted the greatest influence on job satisfaction while workers motivated by economic interests are less satisfied. Besides, in Vinokur-Kaplan’s (1996) study, job satisfaction of the managers in nonprofits of social work could be predicted through challenge, promotion opportunities, social support of coworkers, and lack of value conflict and role conflict in the work they did. Speers (2004) also pointed out the importance of relationship with coworkers as well as with direct supervision were the top factors influencing job satisfaction in nonprofit organizations. According to Mirvis and Hackett (1983), nonprofit organizations provided more challenge, task variety, autonomy, and intrinsic rewards with their employees. Staff in the third sector was found to be more non-monetary oriented (Benz, 2005; 21.

(22) Borzaga & Tortia, 2006; Mirvis & Hackett, 1983). It was evident that the lower salary provided by the nonprofit organizations was a screening strategy to attract people really interested in the job in the nonprofit sector (Handy & Katz, 1998; Leete, 2001). Preston (1989) described employees in nonprofit organizations as people who would incline to donate their labor to achieve the public good which they valued a lot. Besides, employees worked in the nonprofit sector consider their work is more important than the money they made (Mirvis & Hackett, 1983). In terms of Mann’s (2006) research, more than 60 percent of participants in nonprofit organizations evaluated themselves working in the third sector as “for the chance to make a difference, rather than for salary and benefits.” It is assumed that employees worked for the nonprofit organizations were intrinsically motivated more that they enjoyed job satisfaction from the work itself (Benz, 2005). It is consistent with Rose-Ackerman’s (1996) opinion that nonprofits tended to pursue the ideological mission, like the provision of service through religion or education. Such kind of mission could highly motivate employees whom nonprofit organizations rely on a lot to achieve their goals.. 22.

(23) CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY This chapter contains the research framework, research procedure, and research methods. The chapter explains the approach taken in using intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as independent variables and seven facets of job satisfaction as dependent variables. The framework shows how the variables are being tested and the research process explains the steps taken. Details of the method, procedure and instrumentation are given. The methods contain population, instrumentation, validity and reliability of the instrument, and data analysis sections for the study.. Research Framework This research framework was developed to investigate the impact of motivation on job satisfaction in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association. Work Preference Inventory (Amabile, Conti, Coon, Lazenby, & Herron, 1994) measuring workers’ motivation and facets of job satisfaction proposed by Spector (1997) were utilized to develop the questionnaire. Workers’ motivation was divided into four dimensions as challenge in intrinsic motivation, enjoyment in intrinsic motivation, outward in extrinsic motivation, and compensation in extrinsic motivation. The seven facets of job satisfaction included pay, supervision, fringe benefits, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication. The researcher also looked at whether the employees work in a religious nonprofit, namely the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan, or a non-religious nonprofit, namely Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association, as variables. Besides, personal background characteristics, including gender, age, marital status, position, tenure, and highest degree earned were also considered to test against job satisfaction.. 23.

(24) Motivation ¾ Intrinsic z Challenge z Enjoyment ¾ Extrinsic z Outward z Compensatio ¾ ¾ ¾ ¾ ¾ ¾ ¾. Personal Background Characteristics ¾ Gender ¾ Age ¾ Marital status ¾ Position ¾ Tenure ¾ Highest degree. Job Satisfaction Pay Supervision Fringe benefits Operating conditions Coworkers Nature of work Communication. d Type of Nonprofits ¾ Religious ¾ Non-religious. Figure 3.1. Research framework. 24.

(25) Research Procedure The study was carried out through 10 stages. The researcher described each stage in detail as following. 1. Identifying the research topic The research topic was first decided by the researcher and advisor. Then, it was further revised with committee members. 2. Reviewing the relevant literature Literature review was conducted in order to better understand the relevant research finding in this field so as to make comparison. It helped the researcher to broaden the knowledge on this issue, too. 3. Proposing research questions and hypotheses Some research questions were addressed based on literature review and comparison of previous research findings. Research hypotheses were established accordingly. 4. Establishing research design and method Research design and method of an empirical case study were developed in order to answer the research questions. 5. Developing the instrument Based on the literature review, Work Preference Inventory (Amabile, Conti, Coon, Lazenby, & Herron, 1994) and seven facets in Job Satisfaction Survey (Spector, 1997) were adopted and translated into Chinese to develop the questionnaire. Some similar items in Work Preference Inventory were eliminated to make the questionnaire simplified. For example, in the original Work Preference Inventory, there are two questions measuring the enjoyment of work and stating as “What matters most to me is enjoying what I do.” and “It is important for me to be able to do what I most enjoy.” respectively. These two are very similar when translated into Chinese. Therefore, one of them was crossed out. Then two experts helped review the 25.

(26) questionnaire and formed the expert validity. With their suggestions, some wording of the statement was changed and inappropriate items were eliminated. 6. Implementing and analyzing the pilot test 20 employees in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association were chosen to fill in the questionnaire. A reliability test was carried out to build internal consistency. 7. Delivering the questionnaires The questionnaires were delivered to all employees working in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association, except those who participated in the pilot test. A total number of 105 questionnaires were retrieved. 8. Analyzing the data The researcher screened the questionnaires and dropped out the invalid ones. Then, data was coded and the information was input into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) PC 12.0 statistical software program. The statistical analysis to test the hypotheses and answer the research questions were conducted as well. 9. Writing down research finding A research finding to answer the research questions and to see if the hypotheses were accepted was proposed. Some implication was also provided. 10. Designing the final report Based on the research finding, conclusions and suggestions were made to complete the final report. The Figure 3.2 below shows the whole procedures of this research.. 26.

(27) Identifying the research topic. Reviewing the relevant literature. Proposing research questions and hypotheses. Establishing research design and method. Developing the instrument. Implementing and analyzing the pilot test. Delivering the questionnaires. Analyzing the data. Writing down research finding. Designing the final report. Figure 3.2. Research procedure 27.

(28) Research Methods This research employed a quantitative method approach for data gathering. A quantitative questionnaire with some items taken from Work Preference Inventory (Amabile, Conti, Coon, Lazenby, & Herron, 1994) to evaluate workers’ motivation and seven facets in Job Satisfaction Survey (Spector, 1997) to test the degree employees satisfied with the different aspects of job was used. The test used a Likert-type scale. Responses were based on a five-point Likert scale. In the aspect of job satisfaction, the respondents were instructed to refer to their feelings about how they were satisfied with pay, supervision, fringe benefits, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication while one point represented very dissatisfied, two points represented dissatisfied, three points represented NA/neutral, four points represented satisfied, and five points represented very satisfied. In the dimension of workers’ motivation, the respondents were instructed to refer to the degree they agreed with the statements describing their motivation while one point represented strongly disagree, two points represented disagree, three points represented NA/neutral, four points represented agree, and five points represented strongly agree. The respondents also supplied their personal background characteristics, including gender, age, marital status, position, tenure, and highest degree earned. Population of the study The population in the study is all the employees in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association. There are around 80 employees in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan while around 60 employees in Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association. The researcher adopted the method of a general survey that questionnaires were delivered to all employees in the case organizations. Excluding those who participating in the pilot 28.

(29) study, there were 64 questionnaires returned from the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan while seven of them were invalid. The valid response rate in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan was 88.5%. As to Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association, 44 questionnaires were retrieved, among them five were invalid. The valid response rate in Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association was 88.6%. The total valid response rate was 88.6%. There are total 93 valid samples. Table 3.1 below provides a general view of the participants with their personal background characteristics and whether they work in a religious nonprofit, the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan, or a non-religious one, Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association.. 29.

(30) Table 3.1. Data of variables by entries and percentage Variables Gender Age (years old). Marital status. Position Tenure (years). Highest degree earned. Type of nonprofit. Entries. Percentage (%). Male. 20. 21.5. Female 20~29 30~39 40~49 50~59 Above 60 Married Single Divorced Worker Supervisor 0~5 6~10 11~15 16~20 21~25 26~30 Above 30 Master Bachelor Under bachelor Religious Non-religious. 73 26 23 21 18 5 44 43 6 75 18 61 21 6 2 1 0 2 18 59 16 54 39. 78.5 28.0 24.7 22.6 19.4 5.4 47.3 46.2 6.5 80.6 19.4 65.6 22.6 6.5 2.2 1.1 0.0 2.2 19.4 63.4 17.2 58.1 41.9. Instrumentation The instrument used in this study for the data collection of workers’ motivation and job satisfaction was a questionnaire. The items in the questionnaire were gathered from Work Preference Inventory (Amabile, Conti, Coon, Lazenby, & Herron, 1994) and facets in Job Satisfaction Survey (Spector, 1997). The first section of the questionnaire had seven interrogative sentences measuring the degree of job satisfaction. They were rated from one point, very dissatisfied, to five points, very satisfied. These seven interrogative sentences were 30.

(31) composed of seven facets of job satisfaction, including pay, supervision, fringe benefits, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication as dependent variables. There were 18 statements in the second section based on the variables that were rated from one point, strongly disagree, to five points, strongly agree. These 18 questions are explanatory variables measuring workers’ motivation. They were divided into two major dimensions as intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In each dimension, it was further subdivided into two subcategories as challenge and enjoyment in intrinsic motivation while outward and compensation were in extrinsic motivation. Challenge in intrinsic motivation includes Questions items Q2, Q4, Q8, and Q16. Enjoyment in intrinsic motivation has Q6, Q7, Q11, Q12, and Q18. Outward in extrinsic motivation covers Q1, Q5, Q10, Q13, Q15, and Q17. Compensation in extrinsic motivation incorporates Q3, Q9, and Q14. In the last section of the questionnaire, respondents identified their personal background characteristics, including gender, range of age, marital status, position, range of tenure, and highest degree earned. Validity and reliability Validity of the instrument was determined by content validity. Content validity is the extent to which whether the questionnaire used in this study reflects the intended domain of the content. That is the questionnaire has to provide appropriate coverage to answer research questions and test research hypotheses. The researcher reached the content validity by expert validity. Two experts were invited to discuss the items and meanings of the questionnaire. One expert is the researchers’ advisor, Dr. Cheng-Ping Shih. He checked the wording being translated from the original items one by one and suggested some useful revise. The other expert is a manager, Mr. Cheng-Dao Xu, working in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan. He 31.

(32) pointed out some of the wording in statement may be vague and helped to rephrase them to be more implicit and easy to understand. Besides, some inappropriate items were suggested to eliminate. Reliability stands for the reliable and consistent value of the study. A pilot test was carried from March to April, 2008. 20 employees working in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association were chosen to participate in the pilot study. Then the Cronbach’s alpha was adopted to test the reliability. The Cronbach’s alpha for all items was 0.814. As for the dimension of job satisfaction, the Cronbach’s alpha was 0.745 while it was .806 for workers’ motivation. This indicates a good internal consistency. Data analysis The data for this research was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) PC 12.0 statistical software program. Before the information was input into SPSS, coding was conducted. The 25 questions measuring job satisfaction and workers’ motivation were coded using a five-point Likert scale as mentioned before. Among the 18 questions measuring workers’ motivation, Questions items Q1, Q8, Q14, and Q16 are reverse questions. The coding of these items was recoded as five points into one point, four points into two points, three points remaining three points, two points into four points, and one point into five points. The coding for the personal background characteristics, including gender, age, marital status, position, tenure, and highest degree earned was shown in Table 3.2 below.. 32.

(33) Table 3.2. Coding system used in SPSS data analysis Categories. Coding system. Gender. 1 = Male 0 = Female. Age (years old). 1 = 20~29 2 = 30~39 3 = 40~49 4 = Above 50. Marital status. 1 = Married 2 = Single 3 = Divorced. Position. 1 = Worker 0 = Supervisor. Tenure (years). 1 = 0~5 2 = 6~10 3 = Above 11. Highest degree earned. 1 = Master 2 = Bachelor 3 = Under bachelor. Type of nonprofit. 1 = Religious 0 = Non-religious. The age range was designed with five scales originally. However, the entries for the range of above 60 years old were very few, which only accounted for 5.4 % of the whole participants. Age ranges of 50~59 and above 60 years old were combined into one scale consequently. The same happened to the tenure. Employees with the tenure of more than 11 years were not many. As a result, the tenure ranges of 11 to 15, 16 to 20, 21 to 25, 26 to 30, and above 30 years were combined into one scale. Besides, some statistical methods used in this study were introduced in the following. 33.

(34) 1. Reliability analysis Cronbach’s alpha was carried out in the pilot study to test the reliability of the instrument. According to George and Mallery (2003), Cronbach’s alpha should at least reach a level of .70 in order to be acceptable. The results of this study met this standard. 2. Descriptive statistics Numbers, mean scores, standard deviation were computed for the dependent variables, seven facets of job satisfaction. In this way, a general idea of the standard employees satisfied with pay, supervision, fringe benefits, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication could be shown. 3. Independent sample T test analysis Independent Sample T Test analysis was used to analyze one independent variable with two levels. In order to test whether the type of nonprofits, namely the religious and non-religious organizations, affected the seven aspects of job satisfaction, t test analysis was conducted. 4. Multiple linear regression In order to study the impact of motivation on job satisfaction, a Multiple Linear Backward Regression was carried out. This method allowed the researcher to enter all independent variables initially, and then the system automatically took out some of the variables sequentially if they did not meet the significance criterion that p value is less than .10.. 34.

(35) CHAPTER IV. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION This chapter contains two major sections: empirical results and discussion. The empirical result section is a sequential presentation of the hypotheses that is further subdivided into: T test analysis comparing seven aspects of job satisfaction in the religious nonprofit organization, the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan, and the non-religious nonprofit organization, Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association, and Multiple Linear Regression Model measuring the predictor variables statistical significance to seven aspects of job satisfaction. The discussion section is a thorough analysis of the implications from the empirical results.. Empirical Results T test analysis Null hypothesis 1 It was hypothesized that there was no significant difference in the seven aspects of employee job satisfaction between the religious nonprofit organization, the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan, and the non-religious nonprofit organization, Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association. Independent sample t test was carried out in order to test the first null hypothesis. Table 4.1 reported the result of the T test.. 35.

(36) Table 4.1. T test analysis of employee job satisfaction Variables. Type of NPO. Pay. Religious 54 3.09 .896 91 Non-religious 39 3.00 .889. .494. .623. Supervision. Religious 54 3.41 .858 91 Non-religious 39 3.51 .823. -.595. .554. Fringe benefits. Religious 54 3.63 .875 91 Non-religious 39 2.67 .955. 5.039. .000**. Operating conditions. Religious 54 3.72 .712 91 Non-religious 39 3.67 .838. .345. .731. Coworkers. Religious 54 3.72 .656 91 Non-religious 39 3.79 .894. -.452. .652. Nature of work. Religious 54 3.91 .652 91 Non-religious 39 3.59 .818. 2.082. .040*. Communication. Religious 54 3.33 .777 91 Non-religious 39 3.36 .932. -.144. .886. N. M. SD. DF t value p value. *p < .05. **p < .01. N is the number of the participants; M is the mean score of the variable; SD is the standard deviation; DF is the degree of freedom.. Results for Null Hypothesis 1-1: Based on Table 4.1, in the aspect of pay, the mean scores in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association are 3.09 and 3.00 respectively. According to the t value and p value of equal variances assumed, the result shows that there is no significant difference in the job satisfaction of pay between the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association ( t (91) = .494, p = .623 > .05). Therefore, there is not enough evidence to reject this null hypothesis.. 36.

(37) Results for Null Hypothesis 1-2: Based on Table 4.1, in the aspect of supervision, the mean scores in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association are 3.41 and 3.51 respectively. According to the t value and p value of equal variances assumed, the result shows that there is no significant difference in the job satisfaction of supervision between the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association ( t (91) = -.595, p = .554 > .05). Therefore, there is not enough evidence to reject this null hypothesis.. Results for Null Hypothesis 1-3: Based on Table 4.1, in the aspect of fringe benefits, the mean scores in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association are 3.63 and 2.67 respectively. According to the t value and p value of equal variances assumed, the result shows that there is significant difference in the job satisfaction of fringe benefits between the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association ( t (91) = 5.039,. p= .000 < .01).. Therefore, we reject the Null Hypothesis 1-3 and accept the alternative that there is significant difference in the job satisfaction of fringe benefits between the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association. The mean scores indicated that the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan has higher satisfaction in fringe benefits than Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association does.. Results for Null Hypothesis 1-4: Based on Table 4.1, in the aspect of operating conditions, the mean scores in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation 37.

(38) Association are 3.72 and 3.67 respectively. According to the t value and p value of equal variances assumed, the result shows that there is no significant difference in the job satisfaction of operating conditions between the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association ( t (91) = .345, p = .731 > .05). Therefore, there is not enough evidence to reject this null hypothesis.. Results for Null Hypothesis 1-5: Based on Table 4.1, in the aspect of coworkers, the mean scores in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association are 3.72 and 3.79 respectively. According to the t value and p value of equal variances assumed, the result shows that there is no significant difference in the job satisfaction of coworkers between the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association ( t (91) = -.452, p = .652 > .05). Therefore, there is not enough evidence to reject this null hypothesis.. Results for Null Hypothesis 1-6: Based on Table 4.1, in the aspect of nature of work, the mean scores in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association are 3.91 and 3.59 respectively. According to the t value and p value of equal variances assumed, the result shows that there is significant difference in the job satisfaction of nature of work between the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association ( t (91) = 2.082, p = .040 < .05). Therefore, we reject the Null Hypothesis 1-6 and accept the alternative that there is significant difference in the job satisfaction of nature of work between the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association. The 38.

(39) mean scores indicated that the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan has higher satisfaction in nature of work than Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association does.. Results for Null Hypothesis 1-7: Based on Table 4.1, in the aspect of communication, the mean scores in the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association are 3.33 and 3.36 respectively. According to the t value and p value of equal variances assumed, the result showed that there is no significant difference in the job satisfaction of communication between the assembly of Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and Taipei Mental Rehabilitation Association ( t (91) = -.144, p = .886 > .05). Therefore, there is not enough evidence to reject this null hypothesis.. Multiple linear regression analysis In order to test hypotheses 2 to 12, a Multiple Linear Regression Analysis was used to investigate whether the independent variables have statistical significance as predictor variables and seven aspects of employee job satisfaction as dependent variables. The independent variables are four questions consisting of the challenge in the aspect of intrinsic motivation, five questions consisting of the enjoyment in the aspect of intrinsic motivation, six questions consisting of the outward in the aspect of extrinsic motivation, three questions consisting of the compensation in the aspect of extrinsic motivation, type of the nonprofit organization, gender, position, age, marital status, the highest degree earned, and tenure. Type of nonprofit organization is divided into religious and non-religious nonprofit organizations. Gender is divided into male and female. Position is divided into workers and supervisors. Age is divided into four scales, namely 20 to 29, 30 to 39, 40 to 49, and above 50 years old. Marital status is divided into married, single, and divorced. The highest degree earned is. 39.

(40) divided into master, bachelor, and under bachelor. Tenure is divided into three scales, namely less than one to five, six to 10, and above 11 years. The method used in the Multiple Linear Regression Analysis for independent variables as predictors for seven aspects of job satisfaction is the backward elimination process, in which all the 30 independent variables are initially entered into the model and sequentially taken out if they do not meet the significance criterion that. p value is less than .10. For the sake of clarity and space, only the first and the last equations are shown in the following Multiple Regression tables. The researcher decided to show all variables and their significance in the first equation and how that changes because of the backward regression process by the last equation in which all remaining variables are significant. Table 4.2 is Multiple Regression for independent variables as predictors for job satisfaction of pay. The backward elimination process is repeated 23 times, in 23 equations, until all remaining independent variables reach at least the 10% level of significance. In the table, the R² of Equation 1 is 0.953 which accounts for 95.3% of the variance of job satisfaction of pay while in Equation 23 the R² is 0.941 which explains for 94.1% of the variance of job satisfaction of pay.. 40.

(41) Table 4.2. Multiple Regression for independent variables as predictors for job satisfaction of pay Equation 1. Variables. Equation 23. β value¹. t-value β value¹. Q2. .139. .922. Q4. .153. .803. Q8. .122. .804. Q16. -.194. -1.426. Q6. .208. 1.528. Q7. -.203. -1.252. Q11. .267. 1.535. Q12. -.054. -.286. Q18. -.288*. -1.756. Q1. .247**. 2.174. Q5. -.130. -.734. .012. .121. .193. 1.197. Q15. .470**. 3.382. Q17. .040. .228. Extrinsic Motivation- Q3 Compensation Q9 Q14. -1.65 -.069 -.159. .280 .554 .166. Type of NPO. Religious/Non-Rel.. .002. .993. Gender. Male/Female. -.089. .766. Position. Workers/Supervisor .480. .124. Age. 30~39 40~49 Above 50. .310 .434. 1.005 1.125. Marital status. Single Divorced. .298. 1.030. -1.172**. -2.519. Degree. Master Under bachelor. -.359 -.371. -1.093 -1.078. Tenure. 6~10 Above 11. -.167 -.541. -.582 -1.506. Intrinsic MotivationChallenge. Intrinsic MotivationEnjoyment. Extrinsic Motivation- Q10 Outward Q13. 1.235*** 2.790. R². .953. .352***. 3.566. .218***. 2.728. .435***. 4.808. -.312*** -3.382. .441**. 2.246. .716***. 3.372. -.780**. -2.133. -.483*. -1.794. .941. *p < .1. **p < .05. ***p < .01. ¹ The value of the beta here is from the Unstandardized Coefficients.. 41. t-value.

(42) In Equation 1, of the 30 independent variables inputted in the backward regression model, 14 have negative parameters of which three have statistical significance explaining the variance of job satisfaction of pay. From the other 16 variables that have positive parameters, eight have statistical significance explaining the variance of job satisfaction of pay. For the dimension of the challenge in the aspect of intrinsic motivation, no question shows significance to job satisfaction of pay. For the dimension of the enjoyment in the aspect of intrinsic motivation, only Q18 has a negative parameter (-.288) and t-ratio (-1.756) showing significance at the 10% level to job satisfaction of pay. For the dimension of the outward in the aspect of extrinsic motivation, two questions show significance to job satisfaction of pay. The parameter for Q1 is positive (.247), with the t-ratio (2.174), indicating that it is significance at the 5% level and Q15 has a positive parameter (.470) and t-ratio (3.382) showing significance at the 5% level. For the dimension of compensation in the extrinsic motivation, no question shows significance to job satisfaction of pay. The type of nonprofits, gender, position, the highest degree earned, and tenure show no significance to job satisfaction of pay. As to the age, employees with the age of above 50 years old shows significance to job satisfaction of pay with a positive parameter (1.235) and t-ratio (2.790), indicating that it is significance at the 1% level. For the marital status, the divorced employees shows significance to job satisfaction of pay with a negative parameter (-1.172) and t-ratio (-2.519), indicating that it is significance at the 5% level. These results change from equation to equation. In Equation 23, eight variables show statistical significance to job satisfaction of pay. Of those eight variables, three have negative parameters and five have positive parameters.. 42.

(43) Result for Null Hypothesis 2-1: For the dimension of the challenge in the aspect of intrinsic motivation, no questions show significance to job satisfaction of pay. As a result, we accept the null hypothesis 2-1 that there is no statistically significant relationship between the challenge in the aspect of intrinsic motivation and job satisfaction of pay.. Result for Null Hypothesis 3-1: For the dimension of the enjoyment in the aspect of intrinsic motivation, only Q11 has a positive parameter (.352) and a t-ratio (3.566) showing significance at the 1% level. The result means that a rise in the agreement that what matters most to me is enjoying what I do would lead to a rise in job satisfaction of pay. Therefore, we rejected the null hypothesis 3-1 for Q11 and accept the alternative that there is statistically significant relationship between the enjoyment in the aspect of intrinsic motivation and job satisfaction of pay. The null hypothesis is accepted for the other questions belonging to the enjoyment in the aspect of intrinsic motivation; they show that there is no statistically significant relationship between the enjoyment in the aspect of intrinsic motivation and job satisfaction of pay.. Result for Null Hypothesis 4-1: For the dimension of the outward in the aspect of extrinsic motivation, two questions show significance to job satisfaction of pay. The parameter for Q1, a reverse question, is positive (.218), with the t-ratio (2.728), indicating that it is significance at the 1% level. The result indicates that the more employees concern how others think of their job, the more they are satisfied with the pay. Q15 has a positive parameter (.435) and t-ratio (4.808) showing significance at 1%. This implies that the more employees feel that they’re earning something for what they do, the 43.

(44) more they are satisfied with the pay. Therefore we rejected the null hypothesis 4-1 for Q1 and Q15 and accept the alternative that there is statistically significant relationship between the outward in the aspect of extrinsic motivation and job satisfaction of pay. The null hypothesis is accepted for the other questions belonging to the outward in the aspect of extrinsic motivation.. Result for Null Hypothesis 5-1: For the dimension of compensation in the extrinsic motivation, Q3 shows significance to job satisfaction of pay with a negative parameter (-.312) and a t-ratio (-3.382), indicating significance at 1%. The result means if there is an increase in the agreement of being strongly motivated by money earned, there would be a drop in job satisfaction of pay. Therefore, we rejected the null hypothesis 5-1 for Q3 and accept the alternative that there is statistically significant relationship between compensation in the aspect of extrinsic motivation and job satisfaction of pay. The null hypothesis is accepted for the other questions belonging to compensation in the aspect of extrinsic motivation.. Result for Null Hypothesis 6-1: As to type of nonprofits, it is not statistically significant to job satisfaction of pay. As a result the null hypothesis 6-1 is accepted stating that type of nonprofits has no statistical significance to job satisfaction of pay.. Result for Null Hypothesis 7-1: The demographic variable, gender, is not statistically significant to job satisfaction of pay. As a result the null hypothesis 7-1 is accepted stating that gender has no statistical significance to job satisfaction of pay. 44.

(45) Result for Null Hypothesis 8-1: Employees’ position shows significance to job satisfaction of pay with a positive parameter (.441) and the t-ratio (2.246), indicating significance at 5%. This suggests that workers have a higher job satisfaction of pay than supervisors. As a result null hypothesis 8-1 is rejected and shows that position does have statistical significance to job satisfaction of pay.. Result for Null Hypothesis 9-1: As to the age, using employees with the age of 20 to 29 years old as a reference group, employees with the age of above 50 years old show significance to job satisfaction of pay with a positive parameter (.716) and t-ratio (3.372), indicating that it is significance at the 1% level. This means employees with the age of above 50 years old have a higher job satisfaction of pay than those with the age of 20 to 29 years old. As a result, the null hypothesis 9-1 is rejected for employees with the age of above 50 years old and we accept the alternative that there is statistical difference between age and job satisfaction of pay. For employees under 50 years old, this null hypothesis is accepted.. Result for Null Hypothesis 10-1: For the marital status, using the married employees as a reference group, the divorced employees show significance to job satisfaction of pay with a negative parameter (-.780) and t-ratio (-2.133), indicating that it is significance at the 1% level. This implies that the divorced employees have a lower job satisfaction of pay than the married ones. As a result, the null hypothesis 10-1 is rejected for the divorced employees and we accept the alternative that there is statistical difference between. 45.

(46) marital status and job satisfaction of pay. For the married and single employees, this null hypothesis is accepted.. Result for Null Hypothesis 11-1: For the highest degree earned, using employees with the degree of bachelor as the reference group, it is not statistically significant to job satisfaction of pay. As a result the null hypothesis 11-1 is accepted stating that the highest degree earned has no statistical significance to job satisfaction of pay.. Result for Null Hypothesis 12-1: For the tenure, using employees with the tenure of less than one to five years as the reference group, employees with tenure above 11 years has a significance to job satisfaction of pay with a negative parameter (-.483) and t-ratio (-1.794), indicating that it is significance at the 10% level. It suggests employees with tenure above 11 years have a lower job satisfaction of pay than those with less than one to five years. As a result, the null hypothesis 12-1 is rejected for employees with tenure above 11 years and we accept the alternative that there is statistical difference between tenure and job satisfaction of pay. For the employees with the tenure less than 11 years, this null hypothesis is accepted.. Table 4.3 is Multiple Regression for independent variables as predictors for job satisfaction of supervision. The backward elimination process is repeated 19 times, in 19 equations, until all remaining independent variables reach at least the 10% level of significance. In the table, the R² of Equation 1 is 0.963 which accounts for 96.3% of the variance of job satisfaction of supervision while in Equation 19 the R² is 0.959 which explains for 95.9% of the variance of job satisfaction of supervision. 46.