APPENDIX A—Example Question Article by Adam-Smith (1981)
HEAT LOSS FROM THE HUMAN BODY
Heat is lost from the human body by means of conduction, convection, and radiation. But when the temperature of the environment is higher than that of the body, the body gains heat from its surroundings. Under these conditions, heat is loss from the body by sweating.
Heat loss by sweating depend on the fact that when a liquid evaporates, it absorbs and enormous quantity of heat from its surroundings. In the case of water, this amounts to 2256j for every milliliter that evaporates. Therefore, when 1ml of sweat evaporates, a great deal of heat is absorbed from the surface of the body in contact with it. This heat transfer occurs even if the environment is hotter than the body.
Two factors affect the rate of evaporation of sweat, and therefore the effectiveness of sweating as a method of cooling the body. The first is the amount of movement of air surrounding the body. The second is the amount of water vapour in the air which surrounds the body.
When air moves over the surface of water, the amount of evaporation is greatly increased. This is why housewives prefer to hand out their washing on windy days: it dries more quickly than on still days. For the same reason, sweat evaporates very rapidly on windy days, and the rate of heat loss by sweating is much more than on a still day. This accounts for the fact that hot, still days are much less comfortable than hot, windy days. In contrast, the sweat evaporates very rapidly on a hot, windy day, and cools the body quickly and effectively.
The second factor that affects the rate of evaporation of sweat is the amount of water vapor in the air, that is, the humidity. When air is carrying the maximum amount of water vapour that it can hold, it is said to be 100 per cent saturated with water vapour. The relative humidity of the air is said to be 100 per cent.
Under these conditions the air cannot carry any more water, so no water can evaporate. When the relative humidity is high, therefore, sweat cannot evaporate.
Instead, it forms large drops and runs off your skin without cooling you.
When the air is very dry and carries no water at all, the relative humidity is said to be 0%. It is obvious that under these conditions evaporation will be much more rapid. Therefore, sweating will be much more effective as a method of losing heat from the body. On a hot, dry day sweat evaporates ad soon as it is
APENDIX B—Principles for Classification of the Two Dimensions Cognitive Process Dimension
1. A test item is categorized as Remember, retrieving relevant knowledge from long-term memory, when it requires examinees
• to identity the information stated explicitly, especially when it includes key words like “the main reason is that…” or the “the main idea is …”
• to retrieve relevant knowledge from long-term memory
(1.1 Recognizing)
(1.2 Recalling)
2. A test item is categorized as Understand, determining the meaning of instructional messages, including oral, written and graphic communication, when it requires examinees
• to understand the sentence(s) through changing from one form of representation to another (e.g., words to pictures, or words to words)
• to find specific examples of a concept or principle
• to determine that something belongs to a category
• to abstract a general theme or major point(s)
• to draw a logical conclusion from presented information
• to detect correspondences between two ideas, objects, and the like
• to construct a cause-and-effect model for a system
(2.1 Interpreting)
(2.2 Exemplifying) (2.3 Classifying) (2.4 Summarizing) (2.5 Inferring)
(2.6 Comparing)
(2.7 Explaining)
3. A test item is categorized as Apply, carrying out or using a procedure in a given situation, when it requires examinees
• to apply a procedure to a familiar task
• to apply a procedure to an unfamiliar task
(3.1 Executing ) (3.2 Implementing)
4. A test item is categorized as Analyze, breaking material into its constituent parts and detecting how the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose, when it requires examinees
• to distinguish relevant from irrelevant parts or important from unimportant parts of the text
• to determine how elements fit or function within a structure
• To determine a point of view, bias, values, or intent underlying presented material
(4.1 Differentiating )
(4.2 Organizing)
(4.3 Attributing)
5. A test item is categorized as Evaluate, making judgments based on criteria and standards, when it requires examinees
• to detect inconsistencies or fallacies within a process or product; to determine whether a process or product has internal consistency; to detect the effectiveness of a procedure as it is being implemented
• to detect inconsistencies between a product and external criteria, to determine whether a product has external consistency; to detect the appropriateness of a procedure for a given problem
(5.1 Checking)
(5.2 Critiquing)
6. A test item is categorized as Create, putting elements together to form a novel, coherent whole or make an original product, when it requires examinees
• to come up with alternative hypotheses based on criteria
• to devise a procedure for accomplishing some task
• to invent a product
(6.1 Generating)
(6.2 Planning) (6.3 Producing)
Knowledge Dimension
A. A test item is categorized as Factual Knowledge, the basic elements students must know to be acquainted with a discipline or solve problems in it, when it measures examinees’ knowledge of
• definition of words, phrases, etc.
• specific and explicitly stated details or elements, propositional information inferences (answering questions beginning with who, when, what), propositional explanatory inferences (answering questions beginning with why, how), etc.
(Aa. Knowledge of terminology) (Ab. Knowledge of specific
details and elements)
B. A test item is categorized as Conceptual Knowledge, the interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger structure that enable them to function together, when it measures examinees’ knowledge of
• the genre, or the parts of sentences (e.g.
nouns, verbs, adjectives)
• main ideas, major generalizations, major
(Ba. Knowledge of classifications and categories)
(Bb. Knowledge of principles and
• structure of a sentence/paragraph/passage, or interrelationships among principles or theories, etc.
(Bc. Knowledge of theories, models, and structures)
C. A test item is categorized as Procedural Knowledge, how to do something, methods of inquiry, and criteria for using skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods, when it measures examinees’ knowledge of
• skills used to determine word meaning based on structural analysis, the skills of solving a mathematic problem, etc.
• various methods of literary criticism, etc.
• the criteria for determining which of several types of essays to write, which skills to apply, etc.
(Ca. Knowledge of subject- specific skills and algorithms)
(Cb. Knowledge of subject- specific techniques and methods) (Cc. Knowledge of criteria for
determining when to use appropriate procedures)
D. A test item is categorized as Metacognitive Knowledge, knowledge of cognition in general as well as awareness and knowledge of one’s own cognition, when it measures examinees’ knowledge of
• elaborating, outlining, planning,
comprehension-monitoring strategies, etc.
• elaboration strategies like summarizing and paraphrasing can result in deeper levels of comprehension, etc.
• strategies used in certain situations, goals, personal interests, etc.
(Da. Strategic knowledge)
(Db. Knowledge about cognitive tasks, including appropriate contextual and conditional knowledge)
(Dc. Self-knowledge)
APPENDIX C—The Coding Sheet
Instruction: Please identify the cognitive skill and knowledge type tested in an item based on its stem, the correct answer, and the information in the reading passage needed to answer a question. Mark the cognitive process levels and knowledge type by their identification.
200- SAET or DRET
ID Cognitive Process & Categories
Rater ID:
Item ID Cognitive Process Knowledge 41.
ID Knowledge Types Level 1. Remember Type A. Factual Knowledge 1.1 Recognizing Aa. Terminology 1.2 Recalling
42.
Ab. Specific details and elements
Level 2. Understand Type B. Conceptual Knowledge
43.
2.1 Interpreting Ba. Classifications and categories 2.2 Exemplifying Bb. Principles and generalizations
44. 2.3 Classifying Bc. Theories, models, and structures
45.
46.
47.
2.4 Summarizing Type C. Procedural Knowledge
2.5 Inferring Ca. Subject-specific skills and algorithms 2.6 Comparing Cb. Subject-specific techniques and methods 2.7 Explaining Cc. Criteria for determining when to use Level 3. Apply appropriate procedures
48.
3.1 Executing Type D. Metacognitive Knowledge 3.2 Implementing
49.
Da. Strategic knowledge Level 4. Analyze Db.
50.
Cognitive tasks, including appropriate 4.1
4.2
51.
Differentiating Organizing Attributing
contextual and conditional knowledge Dc. Self-knowledge
4.3
Level 5. Evaluate
52. 5.1 Checking
53.
5.2 Critiquing Level 6. Create
54. 6.1 Generating
6.2 Planning
55. 6.3 Producing
APPENDIX D—Results of the Trial Item Analysis
2002 SAET
The researcher Rater No. 1 Rater No. 2 1st time Consensus 2nd time Consensus
# Cognitive Process
Knowledge Cognitive Process
Knowledge Cognitive Process
Knowledge Cognitive Process
Knowledge Cognitive Process Knowledge
Ca 41. 3.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 3.1
Ab 42. 2.7 Ab 4.3 Ab 1.2 Ab 2.7 Ab 1.1
43. 1.1 Ab 4.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
Ab 44. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1
Ab 45. 1.1 Ab 2.7 Ab 2.7 Ab 2.7 Ab 2.1
Bb 46. 4.3 Bb 4.3 Bb 4.3 Bb 4.3 Bb 4.3
47. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
Ab 48. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1
Ab 49. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 4.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1
Bb 50. 2.7 Bb 2.7 Bb 2.7 Bb 2.7 Bb 2.7
51. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
Ab 52. 2.5 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.5 Ab 2.1 Ab 1.1
Ab 53. 1.1 Ab 4.1 Ab 4.2 Ab 4.1 Ab 2.1
Ab 54. 1.1 Ab 4.1 Ab 4.2 Ab 4.1 Ab 1.1
55. 1.1 Ab 4.1 Ab 4.2 Ab 4.1 Ab 1.1 Ab Note. Consistency rates for the trial analysis: 5 (item 44, 46, 48, 50, 51)/15 =33%
APPENDIX E—Results of the Formal Item Analysis
2003 SAET
The researcher Rater No.1 Rater No.2 consensus
# Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge
2.4 Bb 41. 2.4 Bb 2.4 Ab 2.4 Bb
42. 2.5 Bb 2.5 Bb 2.5 Bb 2.5 Bb
43. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
2.4 Bb 44. 2.4 Bb 2.4 Bb 2.4 Bb
1.1 Ab 45. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
46. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
3.1 Ca 47. 3.1 Ca 3.1 Ca 3.1 Ca
1.1 Ab 48. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
2.1 Ab 49. 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
50. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
4.3 Bb 51. 4.3 Bb 2.4 Ab 4.3 Bb
2.4 Bb 52. 2.4 Bb 2.4 Ab 2.4 Bb
53. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
1.1 Ab 54. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
55. 2.5 Ab 2.5 Ab 2.5 Ab 2.5 Ab
2004 SAET
The researcher Rater No.1 Rater No.2 consensus
# Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge
2.4 Bb 41. 2.4 Bb 2.4 Ab 2.4 Bb
1.1 Ab 42. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
1.1 Ab 43. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
2.1 Ab 44. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.7 Ab
1.1 Ab 45. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
2.1 Ab 46. 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
47. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
2.4 Bb 48. 2.4 Bb 2.4 Bb 2.4 Bb
1.1 Ab 49. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
1.1 Ab 50. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
51. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
1.1 Ab 52. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
53. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
2.1 Ab 54. 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 2.4 Ab
2.1 Ab 55. 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 2.4 Ab
2005 SAET
The researcher Rater No.1 Rater No.2 consensus
# Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge
4.3 Bb 41. 4.3 Bb 2.4 Ab 2.4 Bb
42. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
2.5 Ab 43. 2.5 Ab 2.5 Ab 2.5 Ab
2.1 Ab 44. 2.1 Ab 2.5 Bb 2.1 Ab
45. 2.5 Bb 2.5 Bb 2.5 Bb 2.5 Bb
46. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
1.1 Ab 47. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
3.1 Ca 48. 3.1 Ca 3.1 Ca 3.1 Ca
1.1 Ab 49. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
3.1 Ca 50. 3.1 Ca 3.1 Ca 3.1 Ca
1.1 Ab 51. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
4.3 Bb 52. 4.3 Bb 2.4 Ab 4.3 Bb
1.1 Ab 53. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
1.1 Ab 54. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
55. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.7 Ab 2.1 Ab
4.3 Bb 56. 4.3 Bb 2.4 Ab 4.3 Bb
2006 SAET
The researcher Rater No.1 Rater No.2 consensus Cognitive process
# Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge
4.3 Bb
41. 4.3 Bb 2.4 Ab 4.3 Bb
2.1 Ab 42. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
1.1 Ab 43. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
1.1 Ab 44. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
1.1 Ab 45. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
46. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
1.1 Ab 47. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
1.1 Ab 48. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
49. 2.4 Bb 2.4 Bb 2.4 Bb 2.4 Bb
50. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
1.1 Ab 51. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
2.1 Ab 52. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
4.3 Bb 53. 4.3 Bb 2.4 Ab 4.3 Bb
2.1 Ab 54. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
1.1 Ab 55. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
1.1 Ab 56. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
Consistency rates for the past four years: All raters: 42/62 (items) = 66.13%; the researcher and Rater No. 1= 50/62=80.65%;
the researcher and Rater No. 2=43/62=66.13%; Rater No1. and Rater No.2.= 46/62=74.19%
2002 DRET
The researcher Rater No.1 Rater No.2 consensus
# Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge 2.5 Bb
51. 2.5 Bb 2.5 Bb 2.5 Bb
2.5 Ab 52. 2.5 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.5 Ab
4.3 Bb 53. 4.3 Bb 2.4 Ab 4.3 Bb
54. 4.3 Bb 2.4 Bb 2.5 Bb 4.3 Bb
2.1 Ab 55. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
2.1 Ab 56. 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
57. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
58. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
1.1 Ab 59. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
2.1 Ab 60. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
61. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
2.1 Ab 62. 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
1.1 Ab 63. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
64. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
4.3 Bb 65. 4.3 Bb 2.4 Bb 4.3 Bb
2003 DRET
The researcher Rater No.1 Rater No.2 consensus
# Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge
2.4 Bb
46. 2.4 Bb 2.4 Ab 2.4 Bb
47. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
48. 2.5 Ab 2.5 Bb 2.5 Ab 2.5 Ab
1.1 Ab 49. 1.1 Ab 2.3 Ab 1.1 Ab
50. 2.5 Bb 2.5 Bb 2.5 Bb 2.5 Bb
51. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
52. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
53. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
54. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
55. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
56. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
57. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
2.1 Ab 58. 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
2.1 Ab 59. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
60. 4.3 Bb 2.4 Ab 4.3 Bb 4.3 Bb
2004 DRET
The researcher Rater No.1 Rater No.2 consensus
# Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge
2.4 Bb
46. 2.4 Bb 2.4 Ab 4.3 Bb
47. 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
48. 2.5 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.5 Ab 2.5 Ab
49. 2.5 Bb 2.5 Bb 2.5 Bb 2.5 Bb
1.1 Ab 50. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
2.1 Ab 51. 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
52. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
53. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
1.1 Ab 54. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
1.1 Ab 55. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
1.1 Ab 56. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
2005 DRET
The researcher Rater No.1 Rater No.2 consensus
# Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge
3.1 Ca
46. 3.1 Ca 3.1 Ca 3.1 Ca
47. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
48. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
49. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
50. 2.4 Bb 2.4 Ab 2.4 Bb 2.4 Bb
51. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
2.1 Ab 52. 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
53. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Bb 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
54. 2.3 Ba 1.1 Ab 2.3 Ba 2.3 Ba
55. 2.3 Ba 1.1 Ab 2.3 Ba 2.3 Ba
56. 2.3 Ba 2.1 Ab 2.3 Ba 2.3 Ba
2006 DRET
The researcher Rater No.1 Rater No.2 consensus
# Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge Cognitive process Knowledge
46. 2.5 Bb 2.5 Bb 2.5 Bb 2.5 Bb
41. 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
42. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
43. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 44. 4.3 Bb 2.1 Bb 4.3 Bb 4.3 Bb 47. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.7 Ab 2.1 Ab
48. 1.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 1.1 Ab 1.1 Ab
49. 4.3 Bb 2.5 Bb 4.3 Bb 4.3 Bb 50. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
51. 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab 2.1 Ab
52. 2.5 Ab 2.5 Ab 2.5 Ab 2.5 Ab
the researcher and Rater No. 2=53/63=84.13%; Rater No1. and Rater No.2.= 38/63=60.32 % Consistency rates for the past five years: All raters: 42/62 (items) = 35/63=55.566%; the researcher and Rater No. 1=35/63=55.56 %;
APPENDIX F—Reading Passages for Example Questions
1. Remember Factual Knowledge/Recognizing specific details and elements Passage 1 (for Example 1)
A sense of humor is just one of the many things shared by Alfred and Anthony Melillo, 64-year-old twin brothers from East Haven who made history in February 2002. On Christmas Eve, 1992, Anthony had a heart transplant from a 21-year-old donor. Two days before Valentine’s Day in 2002, Alfred received a 19-year-old heart, marking the first time on record that twin adults each received heart transplants.
“I’m 15 minutes older than him, but now I’m younger because of my heart and I’m not going to respect him,” Alfred said with a grin, pointing to his brother while talking to a roomful of reporters, who laughed frequently at their jokes.
While the twins knew that genetics might have played a role in their condition, they recognized that their eating habits might have also contributed to their heart problems. “We’d put half a pound of butter on a steak. I overdid it on all the food that tasted good, so I guess I deserved what I got for not dieting properly.”
The discussion moved to Anthony’s recovery. In the five years since his heart transplant, he had been on an exercise program where he regularly rode a bicycle for five miles, swam each day, and walked a couple of miles. He was still on medication, but not nearly as much as Alfred, who was just in the early stage of his recovery.
“Right now I feel pretty young and I’m doing very well,” Anthony said. “I feel like a new person.” Alfred said his goal, of course, was to feel even better than his brother. But, he added, “I love my brother very much. We’re very close and I’m sure we’ll do just fine.”
2. Understand Factual Knowledge
(1) Interpreting specific details and elements Passage 2 (for Example 2)
Even though she’s just 5 years old, Cindy Smart speaks five languages. She’s a good reader. She can tell time and do simple math, including multiplication and division. She’s not a prodigy. She’s just good programming. Cindy looks like an average doll, with long, blond hair, baby-blue eyes, and a button nose. But loaded with some devices, Cindy is the first doll that can see, think, and do as she’s told.
The eagle-eyed Cindy follows in the path of other breakthrough toys like Sony’s barking Robot Aibo, which was the first to popularize voice command in the late 1990s. Cindy takes Aibo’s innovations one step beyond: she not only follows instructions but also recognizes shapes, colors, and words—and remembers. The effect is a doll that appears to be learning.
The toy company which produced Cindy Smart spent a decade trying to see how
much human nature it could breathe into an inanimate object. Its engineers began researching basic and affordable artificial intelligence, creating minibots that sense light, sounds, and pressure. However, without the sense of sight, their toys seemed to be lacking one of the keenest abilities that life forms use to react to their environment.
So how do the engineers make a doll actually see? In Cindy’s case, it’s a multistep process. When presented a text like “I love you” and asked “Can you read this?” Cindy identifies it as one of 70 preprogrammed commands. Then the inbuilt digital camera scans a 15-degree radius in search of number- or letter-shaped objects.
Buried in her belly, Cindy’s 16-bit microprocessor compares the text with her database of 700 words. If it’s a match, “I love you,” she utters.
Passage 3 (for Example 3)
In 1993, the Metropolitan Museum of Art reluctantly handed over 363 pieces of gold, silver, precious stones, paintings, and sculptures back to Turkey after a court case. Following increasing calls for the return of artistic objects that were removed decades or centuries ago, some of the world’s leading museums have signed a declaration that they will not hand back the ancient artifacts to their countries of origin. They say people all over the world have only been able to fully appreciate ancient civilizations because these museums have provided access to these artistic objects. The ancient civilizations would not be so deeply admired today if these ancient artifacts were not so widely available to an international public in major museums throughout Europe and America. For example, Egyptian culture would not have become so well-known if the museums had not put Egyptian mummies on show.
The British Museum has not signed the declaration, but says it fully supports it.
Over the recent years, it has faced growing pressure to hand back the Elgin Marbles, sculptures taken from the Parthenon in Athens, Greece, in the 19th century. But the British Museum has said that the Museum is the best possible place for them. “They must remain here if the museum is to continue to achieve its aim, which is to show the world to the world,” said the director of the museum.
Passage 4 (for Example 4)
Soapy’s life was fine during spring, summer and autumn, but not so good in the winter. When November arrived, Soapy always found the way to stay indoors, away from the cold, and had three meals a day without paying one cent. The trick was simple: he broke the law.
Last autumn, when nights got too cold to sleep in the park, Soapy realized it was
big department store. Then he stood calmly by the window, waiting. As he had expected, a policeman came running around the corner. Soapy confessed immediately that he was the one who had broken the window. Yet the policeman did not believe him. Soapy also failed in his second scheme: the woman he tried to harass verbally was, much to his surprise, overwhelmed and in fact thanked him for being the first man ever to say such sweet words to her.
It was about noon that Soapy came near a fancy restaurant. He decided to walk in for a big free lunch. When it was time for the bill, he told the manager he had no money and suggested that he have him arrested. The manager, realizing what was going on, asked Soapy to follow him into the kitchen, where a big pile of dirty dishes was waiting to be washed. Three hours later, the exhausted Soapy returned to the street.
Then the night came, and it was too cold for Soapy to sleep in Central Park. So he wandered about until he found himself standing in front of a church. The choir were practicing a song. “We often sang it in church. I showed great promise once, but look at me now. I’ve got to change. Yes, I’ll take the job offered last week as a truck driver.” At this moment, the policeman appeared again, arresting him on a charge of vandalism. Soapy was then taken to the night court, where the judge sentenced him to three months in jail.
(2) Inferring specific details and elements Passage 5 (for Example 5)
Both the Eskimos and the Plains Indians used open fires in their shelters for warmth but with very different consequences. The Eskimo house was an airtight igloo made of blocks of ice with a small tunnel-like entrance and a small chimney in the center for smoke from the fire. Temperatures inside this structure easily reached 70 to 80 degrees Fahrenheit although outside temperatures frequently dropped well below zero. Often, the igloo was so hot that the loss of body fluid through perspiration would force the Eskimos to drink cup after cup of ice water. The Plains Indians, on the other hand, placed their fire in a tepee made with long poles and animal skins with an entrance cut directly into one wall. In contrast to the Eskimo shelter, the tepee was far from airtight; drafts came in around the door and through gaps between the skins.
At night the Indians would crawl under their blankets, cover their heads, and shiver all night—so much that the blankets would shake! The difference between the Eskimo igloo and the Indian tepee was insulation: the igloo’s walls were solid and airtight whereas those of the tepee permitted a great deal of air to enter.
3. Understand Conceptual Knowledge
(1) Classifying into classifications and categories Passage 6 (for Example 6)
When a company ventures into new markets, it will need to face various
problems. These problems can be broadly classified into several categories, including (1) cultural factors, (2) economic issues, (3) geographical factors, (4) political/legal issues, (5) religious factors, and (6) technological issues. Find an appropriate category for the problems discussed in each of the following paragraphs.
These problems are perhaps the biggest issue a researcher can come across while studying new markets. This is because markets that can be classified as similar on various grounds tend to be dissimilar when it comes to this particular aspect. There are differences even within the same country. Accordingly, travel advertising in Canada is divided between the English audience and the French audience. While pictures of travel advertisements show a wife alone for the English audience, a man and wife are shown for the French audience. This is done because the French are more bound by family ties.
(2) Summarizing principles and generalizations Passage 7 (for Example 7)
A sense of humor is just one of the many things shared by Alfred and Anthony Melillo, 64-year-old twin brothers from East Haven who made history in February 2002. On Christmas Eve, 1992, Anthony had a heart transplant from a 21-year-old donor. Two days before Valentine’s Day in 2002, Alfred received a 19-year-old heart, marking the first time on record that twin adults each received heart transplants.
“I’m 15 minutes older than him, but now I’m younger because of my heart and I’m not going to respect him,” Alfred said with a grin, pointing to his brother while talking to a roomful of reporters, who laughed frequently at their jokes.
While the twins knew that genetics might have played a role in their condition, they recognized that their eating habits might have also contributed to their heart problems. “We’d put half a pound of butter on a steak. I overdid it on all the food that tasted good, so I guess I deserved what I got for not dieting properly.”
The discussion moved to Anthony’s recovery. In the five years since his heart transplant, he had been on an exercise program where he regularly rode a bicycle for
“Right now I feel pretty young and I’m doing very well,” Anthony said. “I feel like a new person.” Alfred said his goal, of course, was to feel even better than his brother. But, he added, “I love my brother very much. We’re very close and I’m sure we’ll do just fine.”
Passage 8 (for Example 8)
Some animals have organs in their bodies that produce light. When it is dark, they flash their lights on and off to signal to others of their species, to lure prey toward them, or to escape from predators.
Some fish are found to produce light in the blackness of the sea. When night falls over the Red Sea, tiny flashlight fish rise to the surface for food, each with a pair of
“headlamps,” one beneath each eye. With the light produced by bacteria living there, they communicate with other flashlight fish to avoid getting too close to each other, so that the fish may spread out evenly to get enough food. And if a flashlight fish is threatened by a predator, it swims away in a zigzag path, flashing its light on and off very quickly to confuse the animal pursuing it.
Certain land animals can also produce light. Fireflies, small beetles that live in many warmer parts of the world, use light to attract a mate. After darkness falls in some parts of North America, female fireflies gather on the ground. The males fly overhead, flashing light from the undersides of their bodies. As there are a number of species of firefly, the males of each kind flash their own particular signal.
Recognizing the flashing code of her own species, a female signals back to the male, and he lands beside her.
On land as in the sea, living lights can be deceiving. When they are hungry, some female fireflies lure the males of other species to them. They flash a false response when these males signal overhead, but eat them when they land.
(3) Inferring classifications and categories See Passage 5 (for Example 9)
(4) Explaining principles and generalizations Passage 9 (for Example 10)
In the early part of the twentieth century, racism was widespread in the United States. Many African Americans were not given equal opportunities in education or employment. Marian Anderson (1897-1993) was an African American woman who gained fame as a concert singer in this climate of racism. She was born in
Philadelphia and sang in church choirs during her childhood. When she applied for admission to a local music school in 1917, she was turned down because she was
black. Unable to attend music school, she began her career as a singer for church gatherings. In 1929, she went to Europe to study voice and spent several years
performing there. Her voice was widely praised throughout Europe. Then she returned to the U.S. in 1935 and became a top concert singer after performing at Town Hall in New York City.
Racism again affected Anderson in 1939. When it was arranged for her to sing at Constitution Hall in Washington, D.C., the Daughters of the American Revaluation opposed it because of her color. She sang instead at the Lincoln Memorial for over 75,000 people. In 1955, Anderson became the first black soloist to sing with the Metropolitan Opera of New York City. The famous conductor Toscanini praised her voice as “heard only once in a hundred years.” She was a U.S. delegate to the United Nations in 1958 and won the UN peace prize in 1977. Anderson eventually triumphed over racism.
4. Apply Procedural Knowledge/Executing subject specific skills and algorithms Passage 10 (for Example 11)
Tim Welford, aged 33, and Dom Mee, aged 30, both from England, were keen on rowing boats. They made a plan to row across the Pacific Ocean from Japan to San Francisco. The name of their rowboat was “Crackers.” It was about 7 meters long.
They set out from Japan on May 17, 2001. They had rowed nearly 5,500 miles when their boat was hit by a fishing ship on September 17, 2001. Luckily they both escaped unharmed, but their boat was badly damaged and they had to abandon their journey.
In a radio interview, Dom expressed his disappointment and explained how the accident took place.
“A fishing ship came towards us with nobody on the bridge and ran us down. It happened so quickly. I managed to dive into the water. Tim felt it would be safer to stay on board the boat. He was trapped inside as the boat was driven under the water.
Finally some people appeared on the ship and saw me in the water. I shouted at them to stop the ship and to get Time out. When the ship stopped, I eventually saw Tim, and I was very, very relieved that we were still alive. We were very disappointed that we couldn’t reach San Francisco. But we are alive. That above everything is the most important.”
5. Analyze Conceptual Knowledge/Attributing principles and generalizations Passage 11 (for Example 12)
spiritual brother. They respected the animals’ endurance and hunting ability, and warriors prayed to hunt like them. They draped themselves in wolf skins and paws, hoping they could acquire the wolf’s hunting skills of stealth, courage, and stamina.
Plains Indians wore wolf-skin disguises on raiding parties. Elite Comanche warriors were called wolves.
The white settlers’ war on the wolf raged on. Western ranchers continued to claim that thousands of cattle were killed every year by wolves. In 1884, Montana created its first wolf bounty—one dollar for every dead wolf, which increased to eight dollars in 1893. Over a period of thirty-five years, more than eighty thousand wolf carcasses were submitted for bounty payments in Montana. Moreover, the
government even provided free poison. Finally, in 1914, ranchers persuaded the United States Congress to provide funds to exterminate wolves on public lands.
The last wolves in the American West died hard. No place was safe, not even the nation’s first national park, Yellowstone. The park was created in 1872, and from its very beginning, poisoned carcasses were set out to kill wolves. Nearly 140 wolves were killed by park rangers in Yellowstone from 1914 to 1926. In October 1926, two wolf cubs were trapped near a bison carcass. They were the last animals killed in the park’s wolf control programs.
Ranchers had won the war against the wolf. Only in the northern woods of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan could the howl of native gray wolves be heard.
The vast lands of the American West fell silent. The country had lost its greatest predator.
