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(1)

Boolean Functions

• An n-ary boolean function is a function

f : { true, false }n → { true, false }.

• It can be represented by a truth table.

• There are 22n such boolean functions.

– We can assign true or false to f for each of the 2n truth assignments.

(2)

Boolean Functions (continued)

Assignment Truth value 1 true or false 2 true or false

... ...

2n true or false

• A boolean expression expresses a boolean function.

– Think of its truth values under all possible truth assignments.

(3)

Boolean Functions (continued)

• A boolean function expresses a boolean expression.



T |= φ, literal yi is true in “row” T (y1 ∧ · · · ∧ yn).a

∗ The implicant y1 ∧ · · · ∧ yn is called the minterm over { x1, . . . , xn } for T .

– The sizeb is ≤ n2n ≤ 22n.

– This DNF is optimal for the parity function, for example.c

aSimilar to programmable logic array. This is called the table lookup representation (Beigel, 1993).

bWe count only the literals here.

cDu & Ko (2000).

(4)

Boolean Functions (continued)

x1 x2 f(x1, x2)

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 0

1 1 1

The corresponding boolean expression:

(¬x1 ∧ ¬x2) ∨ (¬x1 ∧ x2) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2).

(5)

Boolean Functions (concluded)

Corollary 15 Every n-ary boolean function can be expressed by a boolean expression of size O(n2n).

• In general, the exponential length in n cannot be avoided (p. 209).

• The size of the truth table is also O(n2n).a

aThere are 2n n-bit strings.

(6)

Boolean Circuits

• A boolean circuit is a graph C whose nodes are the gates.

• There are no cycles in C.

• All nodes have indegree (number of incoming edges) equal to 0, 1, or 2.

• Each gate has a sort from

{ true, false, ∨, ∧, ¬, x1, x2, . . . }.

– There are n + 5 sorts.

(7)

Boolean Circuits (concluded)

• Gates with a sort from { true, false, x1, x2, . . . } are the inputs of C and have an indegree of zero.

• The output gate(s) has no outgoing edges.

• A boolean circuit computes a boolean function.

• A boolean function can be realized by infinitely many equivalent boolean circuits.

(8)

Boolean Circuits and Expressions

• They are equivalent representations.

• One can construct one from the other:

¬ [L ¬

[L

[L ∨ [M

[L [M

[L ∧ [M

[L [M

(9)

An Example

((x1 x2 ) (x3 x4)) (x3 x4))

x1 x2 x3 x4

• Circuits are more economical because of the possibility of “sharing.”

(10)

circuit sat and circuit value

circuit sat: Given a circuit, is there a truth assignment such that the circuit outputs true?

• circuit sat ∈ NP: Guess a truth assignment and then evaluate the circuit.a

circuit value: The same as circuit sat except that the circuit has no variable gates.

• circuit value ∈ P: Evaluate the circuit from the input gates gradually towards the output gate.

aEssentially the same algorithm as the one on p. 119.

(11)

Some

a

Boolean Functions Need Exponential Circuits

b

Theorem 16 For any n ≥ 2, there is an n-ary boolean function f such that no boolean circuits with 2n/(2n) or fewer gates can compute it.

• There are 22n different n-ary boolean functions (p. 199).

• So it suffices to prove that the number of boolean circuits with 2n/(2n) or fewer gates is less than 22n.

aCan be strengthened to “Almost all.”

bRiordan & Shannon (1942); Shannon (1949).

(12)

The Proof (concluded)

• There are at most ((n + 5) × m2)m boolean circuits with m or fewer gates (see next page).

• But ((n + 5) × m2)m < 22n when m = 2n/(2n):

m log2((n + 5) × m2)

= 2n



1 log2 n+54n2 2n



< 2n for n ≥ 2.

(13)

m choices

n+5 choices

m choices

(14)

Claude Elwood Shannon (1916–2001)

Howard Gardner (1987), “[Shan- non’s master’s thesis is] possibly the most important, and also the most famous, master’s thesis of the cen- tury.”

(15)

Comments

• The lower bound 2n/(2n) is rather tight because an upper bound is n2n (p. 201).

• The proof counted the number of circuits.

– Some circuits may not be valid at all.

– Different circuits may also compute the same function.

• Both are fine because we only need an upper bound on the number of circuits.

• We do not need to consider the outgoing edges because they have been counted as incoming edges.a

aIf you prove it by considering outgoing edges, the bound will not be good. (Try it!)

(16)

Relations between Complexity Classes

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It is, I own, not uncommon to be wrong in theory and right in practice.

— Edmund Burke (1729–1797), A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1757) The problem with QE is it works in practice, but it doesn’t work in theory.

— Ben Bernanke (2014)

(18)

Proper (Complexity) Functions

• We say that f : N → N is a proper (complexity) function if the following hold:

f is nondecreasing.

– There is a k-string TM Mf such that Mf(x) = f(| x |) for any x.a

Mf halts after O(| x | + f(| x |)) steps.

Mf uses O(f (| x |)) space besides its input x.

• Mf’s behavior depends only on | x | not x’s contents.

• Mf’s running time is bounded by f (n).

aThe textbook calls “” the quasi-blank symbol. The use of Mf(x) will become clear in Proposition 17 (p. 219).

(19)

Examples of Proper Functions

• Most “reasonable” functions are proper: c, log n , polynomials of n, 2n, √n , n!, etc.

• If f and g are proper, then so are f + g, fg, and 2g.a

• Nonproper functions when serving as the time bounds for complexity classes spoil “theory building.”

– For example, TIME(f (n)) = TIME(2f(n)) for some recursive function f (the gap theorem).b

• Only proper functions f will be used in TIME(f(n)), SPACE(f (n)), NTIME(f (n)), and NSPACE(f (n)).

aFor f (g(n)), we need to add f (n) ≥ n.

bTrakhtenbrot (1964); Borodin (1972). Theorem 7.3 on p. 145 of the textbook proves it.

(20)

Precise Turing Machines

• A TM M is precise if there are functions f and g such that for every n ∈ N, for every x of length n, and for every computation path of M ,

M halts after precisely f(n) steps,a and

– All of its strings are of length precisely g(n) at halting.b

∗ Recall that if M is a TM with input and output, we exclude the first and last strings.

• M can be deterministic or nondeterministic.

aFully time constructible (Hopcroft & Ullman, 1979).

bFully space constructible (Hopcroft & Ullman, 1979).

(21)

Precise TMs Are General

Proposition 17 Suppose a TMa M decides L within time (space) f (n), where f is proper. Then there is a precise TM M which decides L in time O(n + f (n)) (space O(f (n)), respectively).

• M on input x first simulates the TM Mf associated with the proper function f on x.

• Mf’s output, of length f (| x |), will serve as a

“yardstick” or an “alarm clock.”

aIt can be deterministic or nondeterministic.

(22)

The Proof (continued)

• Then M simulates M (x).

• M(x) halts when and only when the alarm clock runs out—even if M halts earlier.

• If f is a time bound:

– The simulation of each step of M on x is matched by advancing the cursor on the “clock” string.

– Because M stops at the moment the “clock” string is exhausted—even if M (x) stops earlier, it is precise.

– The time bound is therefore O(| x | + f(| x |)).

(23)

The Proof (concluded)

• If f is a space bound (sketch):

M simulates M on the quasi-blanks of Mf’s output string.a

– The total space, not counting the input string, is O(f(n)).

– But we still need a way to make sure there is no infinite loop.b

aThis is to make sure the space bound is precise.

bSee the proof of Theorem 24 (p. 237).

(24)

Important Complexity Classes

• We write expressions like nk to denote the union of all complexity classes, one for each value of k.

• For example,

NTIME(nk) =Δ 

j>0

NTIME(nj).

(25)

Important Complexity Classes (concluded)

P =Δ TIME(nk), NP =Δ NTIME(nk), PSPACE =Δ SPACE(nk), NPSPACE =Δ NSPACE(nk),

E =Δ TIME(2kn), EXP =Δ TIME(2nk), NEXP =Δ NTIME(2nk),

L =Δ SPACE(log n), NL =Δ NSPACE(log n).

(26)

Complements of Nondeterministic Classes

• Recall that the complement of L, or ¯L, is the language Σ − L.

sat complement is the set of unsatisfiable boolean expressions.

• R, RE, and coRE are distinct (p. 158).

– Again, coRE contains the complements of languages in RE, not languages that are not in RE.

• How about coC when C is a complexity class?

(27)

The Co-Classes

• For any complexity class C, coC denotes the class { L : ¯L ∈ C }.

• Clearly, if C is a deterministic time or space complexity class, then C = coC.

– They are said to be closed under complement.

– A deterministic TM deciding L can be converted to one that decides ¯L within the same time or space bound by reversing the “yes” and “no” states.a

• Whether nondeterministic classes for time are closed under complement is not known (see p. 111).

aSee p. 155.

(28)

Comments

• As

coC = { L : ¯L ∈ C }, L ∈ C if and only if ¯L ∈ coC.

• But it is not true that L ∈ C if and only if L ∈ coC.

– coC is not defined as ¯C.

• For example, suppose C = {{ 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . . }, . . . }.

• Then coC = {{ 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, . . . }, . . . }.

• But ¯C = 2{ 1,2,3,... } − {{ 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . . }, . . . }.

(29)

The Quantified Halting Problem

• Let f(n) ≥ n be proper.

• Define

Hf =Δ { M; x : M accepts input x after at most f (| x |) steps }, where M is deterministic.

• Assume the input is binary as usual.

(30)

H

f

∈ TIME(f(n)

3

)

• For each input M; x, we simulate M on x with an alarm clock of length f (| x |).

– Use the single-string simulator (p. 83), the universal TM (p. 135), and the linear speedup theorem (p. 93).

– Our simulator accepts M ; x if and only if M accepts x before the alarm clock runs out.

• From p. 90, the total running time is O(MkM2 f(n)2), where M is the length to encode each symbol or state of M and kM is M ’s number of strings.

• As MkM2 = O(n), the running time is O(f (n)3), where the constant is independent of M .

(31)

H

f

∈ TIME(f(n/2))

• Suppose TM MHf decides Hf in time f (n/2).

• Consider machine:

Df(M ) {

if MHf(M ; M ) = “yes”

then “no”;

else “yes”;

}

• Df on input M runs in the same time as MHf on input M; M, i.e., in time f(2n+12 ) = f(n), where n = | M |.a

aA student pointed out on October 6, 2004, that this estimation for- gets to include the time to write down M ; M .

(32)

The Proof (concluded)

• First,

Df(Df) = “yes”

⇒ Df; Df ∈ Hf

⇒ Df does not accept Df within time f (| Df |)

⇒ Df(Df) = “no” as Df(Df) runs in time f (| Df |), a contradiction

• Similarly, Df(Df) = “no” ⇒ Df(Df) = “yes.”

(33)

The Time Hierarchy Theorem

Theorem 18 If f (n) ≥ n is proper, then

TIME(f (n))  TIME(f(2n + 1)3).

• The quantified halting problem makes it so.

Corollary 19 P  E.

• P ⊆ TIME(2n) because poly(n) ≤ 2n for n large enough.

• But by Theorem 18,

TIME (2n)  TIME

(22n+1)3

⊆ E.

• So P  E.

(34)

The Space Hierarchy Theorem

Theorem 20 (Hennie & Stearns, 1966) If f (n) is proper, then

SPACE(f (n))  SPACE(f(n) log f(n)).

Corollary 21 L  PSPACE.

(35)

Nondeterministic Time Hierarchy Theorems

Theorem 22 (Cook, 1973) NTIME(nr)  NTIME(ns) whenever 1 ≤ r < s.

Theorem 23 (Seiferas, Fischer, & Meyer, 1978) If T1(n) and T2(n) are proper, then

NTIME(T1(n))  NTIME(T2(n)) whenever T1(n + 1) = o(T2(n)).

(36)

The Reachability Method

• The computation of a time-bounded TM can be represented by a directed graph.

• The TM’s configurations constitute the nodes.

• There is a directed edge from node x to node y if x yields y in one step.

• The start node representing the initial configuration has zero in-degree.

(37)

The Reachability Method (concluded)

• When the TM is nondeterministic, a node may have an out-degree greater than one.

– The graph is the same as the computation tree earlier.

– But identical configurations are merged into one node.

• So M accepts the input if and only if there is a path from the start node to a node with a “yes” state.

• It is the reachability problem.

(38)

Illustration of the Reachability Method

yes

yes Initial

configuration

(39)

Relations between Complexity Classes

Theorem 24 Suppose f (n) is proper. Then 1. SPACE(f (n)) ⊆ NSPACE(f(n)),

TIME(f (n)) ⊆ NTIME(f(n)).

2. NTIME(f (n)) ⊆ SPACE(f(n)).

3. NSPACE(f (n)) ⊆ TIME(klog n+f(n)).

• Proof of 2:

– Explore the computation tree of the NTM for “yes.”

– Specifically, generate an f (n)-bit sequence denoting the nondeterministic choices over f (n) steps.

(40)

Proof of Theorem 24(2)

• (continued)

– Simulate the NTM based on the choices.

– Recycle the space and repeat the above steps.

– Halt with “yes” when a “yes” is encountered or “no”

if the tree is exhausted.

– Each path simulation consumes at most O(f (n)) space because it takes O(f (n)) time.

– The total space is O(f (n)) because space is recycled.

(41)

Proof of Theorem 24(3)

• Let k-string NTM

M = (K, Σ, Δ, s)

with input and output decide L ∈ NSPACE(f(n)).

• Use the reachability method on the configuration graph of M on input x of length n.

• A configuration is a (2k + 1)-tuple

(q, w1, u1, w2, u2, . . . , wk, uk).

(42)

Proof of Theorem 24(3) (continued)

• We only care about

(q, i, w2, u2, . . . , wk−1, uk−1),

where i is an integer between 0 and n for the position of the first cursor.

• The number of configurations is therefore at most

| K | × (n + 1) × | Σ |2(k−2)f(n) = O(clog n+f(n)1 ) (2) for some c1 > 1, which depends on M.

• Add edges to the configuration graph based on M’s transition function.

(43)

Proof of Theorem 24(3) (concluded)

• x ∈ L ⇔ there is a path in the configuration graph from the initial configuration to a configuration of the form (“yes”, i, . . .).a

• This is reachability on a graph with O(clog n+f(n)1 ) nodes.

• It is in TIME(clog n+f(n)) for some c > 1 because reachability ∈ TIME(nj) for some j and

clog n+f(n)1 j

= (cj1)log n+f(n).

aThere may be many of them.

(44)

Space-Bounded Computation and Proper Functions

• In the definition of space-bounded computations earlier (p. 109), the TMs are not required to halt at all.

• When the space is bounded by a proper function f, computations can be assumed to halt:

– Run the TM associated with f to produce a quasi-blank output of length f (n) first.

– The space-bounded computation must repeat a

configuration if it runs for more than clog n+f(n) steps for some c > 1.a

aSee Eq. (2) on p. 240.

(45)

Space-Bounded Computation and Proper Functions (concluded)

• (continued)

– So an infinite loop occurs during simulation for a computation path longer than clog n+f(n) steps.

– Hence we only simulate up to clog n+f(n) time steps per computation path.

(46)

A Grand Chain of Inclusions

a

• It is an easy application of Theorem 24 (p. 237) that L ⊆ NL ⊆ P ⊆ NP ⊆ PSPACE ⊆ EXP.

• By Corollary 21 (p. 232), we know L  PSPACE.

• So the chain must break somewhere between L and EXP.

• It is suspected that all four inclusions are proper.

• But there are no proofs yet.

aWith input from Mr. Chin-Luei Chang (B89902053, R93922004, D95922007) on October 22, 2004.

(47)

What Is Wrong with the Proof?

a

• By Theorem 24(2) (p. 237), NL ⊆ TIME

kO(log n)

⊆ TIME (nc1) for some c1 > 0.

• By Theorem 18 (p. 231),

TIME (nc1)  TIME (nc2) ⊆ P for some c2 > c1.

• So

NL = P.

aContributed by Mr. Yuan-Fu Shao (R02922083) on November 11, 2014.

(48)

What Is Wrong with the Proof? (concluded)

• Recall from p. 222 that TIME(kO(log n)) is a shorthand

for 

j>0

TIME

jO(log n) .

• So the correct proof runs more like NL 

j>0

TIME

jO(log n)



c>0

TIME (nc) = P.

• And

NL = P no longer follows.

(49)

Nondeterministic and Deterministic Space

• By Theorem 6 (p. 116),

NTIME(f (n)) ⊆ TIME(cf(n)), an exponential gap.

• There is no proof yet that the exponential gap is inherent.

• How about NSPACE vs. SPACE?

• Surprisingly, the relation is only quadratic—a polynomial—by Savitch’s theorem.

(50)

Savitch’s Theorem

Theorem 25 (Savitch, 1970)

reachability ∈ SPACE(log2 n).

• Let G(V, E) be a graph with n nodes.

• For i ≥ 0, let

PATH(x, y, i)

mean there is a path from node x to node y of length at most 2i.

• There is a path from x to y if and only if PATH(x, y, log n ) holds.

(51)

The Proof (continued)

• For i > 0, PATH(x, y, i) if and only if there exists a z such that PATH(x, z, i − 1) and PATH(z, y, i − 1).

• For PATH(x, y, 0), check the input graph or if x = y.

• Compute PATH(x, y, log n ) with a depth-first search on a graph with nodes (x, y, i)s (see next page).a

• Like stacks in recursive calls, we keep only the current path’s (x, y, i)s.

• The space requirement is proportional to the depth of the tree (log n ) times the size of the items stored at each node.

aContributed by Mr. Chuan-Yao Tan on October 11, 2011.

(52)

The Proof (continued): Algorithm for PATH (x, y, i)

1: if i = 0 then

2: if x = y or (x, y) ∈ E then

3: return true;

4: else

5: return false;

6: end if

7: else

8: for z = 1, 2, . . . , n do

9: if PATH(x, z, i − 1) and PATH(z, y, i − 1) then

10: return true;

11: end if

12: end for

13: return false;

14: end if

(53)

The Proof (continued)

[\ Q

[] Q ]\ Q

ØÙ

ØÙ ØÙ

(54)

The Proof (concluded)

• Depth is log n , and each node (x, y, i) needs space O(log n).

• The total space is O(log2 n).

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