Listening to Chinese Music

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Listening to Chinese Music

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Listening to Chinese Music

This article is an English translation of part of the book Listening to Chinese Music

《中國音樂導賞》edited by Chuen-Fung Wong (黃泉鋒) and published by the Hong Kong Commercial Press in 2009 as a project of the Chinese Music Archive of the Chinese University of Hong Kong. With the permission by the Chinese Music Archive, this article is uploaded onto the Education Bureau’s website for teachers’ and students’

reference. As for the recordings of selected music, please refer to the CDs accompanying the printed copy of the Chinese version.

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Foreword

It is heartening to see the completion of the English edition of Listening to Chinese Music edited by Prof. Chuen-Fung Wong (黃泉鋒) of MaCalester College, Minnesota. A very timely publication in Chinese music, it is significant to point out that the book is written and edited by scholars of the younger generation in post-1997 Hong Kong. Regardless of their differences in academic and musical backgrounds, the common ground they share is that they are products of the Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK). All of them have first-hand experience in post-secondary teaching. Furthermore, most are committed performers of Chinese music in various genres. It is important to have solid academic training as well as practical know-how in writing a diverse and broad subject such as Chinese music. Its Chinese edition (2009) has been well received in Hong Kong. Reprinting twice, we are honoured to be invited by the Education Bureau of the Hong Kong Government to translate five chapters of this meaningful and very much needed book into English.

Addressing the English readership, it is inexpedient to translate the book directly from Chinese to English. It requires more rethinking and further explanation to those who do not have much background in Chinese history, culture and music. At this juncture, the experience and expertise of Mr. Tsui Wan-ching (徐允清) fit perfectly. Mr. Tsui, in addition to be an outstanding music alumnus of CUHK, furthered his studies in historical musicology at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and the Royal Holloway, University of London.

Since his return to Hong Kong, he has been teaching both Western and Chinese music, and has been actively participating in the exchanges in academic conferences. We are grateful to his willingness of undertaking this important task. Last but not least, I would like to thank Dr.

Tse Chun-yan (謝俊仁), the advisor of the Chinese Music Archive, for his unfailing support, efficient planning and coordinating, seeing this project from its very beginning, the Chinese edition, to the completion of the present English edition. Thanks should also go to Ms. Li Wai-chung (李慧中) and Ms. Janet Chui Shing-yan (崔承恩), our former archivists, without whose administrative support, this project could not have been possible.

Yu Siu-wah (PhD) Associate Professor

Director (June 2005 – May 2012) The Chinese Music Archive (CMA) Department of Music

The Chinese University of Hong Kong

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Translator’s Preface

Listening to Chinese Music (中國音樂導賞) is an introductory book on Chinese music

written by four young scholars, Prof. Chuen-Fung Wong (黃泉鋒), Dr. Chan Chak-lui (陳澤蕾), Mr. Yeung Wai-kit (楊偉傑), and Mr. Wong King-chung (王景松). It is written in an easily readable way and at the same time informative and stimulating. It is indeed an honour for me to be invited by the Education Bureau of the Hong Kong Government and the Chinese Music Archive of the Chinese University of Hong Kong to translate five chapters of this book into English.

My translation is indebted to the pioneering academic writings of Profs. Bell Yung (榮鴻曾), Stephen Jones, Chan Sau-yan (陳守仁), J. Lawrence Witzleben, Yu Siu-wah (余少華), Frederick Lau (劉長江), Maria Chow Mai-wah (周美華), as well as numerous translators of CD liner notes and concert programmes that I am not able to name one by one. My heartiest gratitude goes to all of them.

The translation policy adopted in this translation is as follows:

1. Order of the family name and given name for Chinese names: generally, if the name is in romanisation, the family name comes first, followed by the given name. An exception is the author’s name Chuen-Fung Wong (黃泉鋒), which is in the reverse order, as he specifically requested so. As for Chinese persons using Christian names, the Christian name comes first, followed by the family name, like Richard Tsang (曾葉發) and Clarence Mak (麥偉鑄).

2. Hanyupinyin (漢語拼音), the romanisation system currently employed in mainland China, is used for historical names and names for persons from mainland China.

3. Endeavours have been made to find official names for persons from Hong Kong. However, as there is no standard romanisation system for person’s name in Hong Kong, in the cases that the official names are not available, either names used in English academic writings (like Wong Jyt-seng 王粵生) or hanyupinyin is employed (like Fang Yan-fen 芳艷芬 and Chen Jin-tang 陳錦棠).

4. The years of the Chinese dynasties, which are not given in the Chinese version of this book, are added in this translation for the easy reference of foreign readers.

5. Generally, “Beijing” is used for 北京. However, when referring to 北京大學 or 燕京大學,

“Peking University” is used, as this translation has already been used widely.

6. In Chapter 6 (Cantonese Opera and Narrative Singing), hanyupinyin is used for technical terms in music, as this is the policy adopted by the Education Bureau of the Hong Kong Government. I have endeavoured to provide an English translation for these terms in the first

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time that they appear.

7. For the lyrics in Chapter 6, generally only synopses in English are provided, instead of translating the lyrics sentence by sentence. The reason is that it is extremely difficult to translate poetic lyrics. Even if this is done, a lot of footnotes explaining the connotations of the poetic images or allusions are required. Moreover, the target readers of this translation are teachers and students preparing for the Music Examination of the Diploma of Secondary Education of Hong Kong. Most of them are supposed to be able to read Chinese.

8. Square brackets [ ] are used to show that something is added or altered by the translator. For example, in Listening Guide 6.5, [Nanyin] is added after “Naamyam” to show that the latter is equivalent to the pinyin “Nanyin”. Sometimes [sic] is added to show that something seems unlikely or is clearly incorrect with the original (“sic” is the Latin for “thus”). For example, in Listening Guide 1.2, “[sic]” is added after the title of the record “Traditional Instrumental Pieces of WEI Chung-loh” since the present translator thinks that this title can be better phrased as “Traditional Instrumental Pieces Performed by WEI Chung-loh.”

Many persons have offered me help in this translation project and I would like to extend my warm gratitude to them. I would first like to thank the four authors for reading drafts of this translation, clarifying certain points, and supplying further information. Dr. Tse Chun-yan (謝俊仁), Mr. Yeh Cheung-shing ( 葉長盛) and Mr. Woo Shing-kwan ( 胡成筠) have made important suggestions for the improvement of the drafts. Ms. Cilea Lee Siu-ying (李小英), Mr.

Leung Wing-kin (梁永健) and Mr. Tiger Liu (廖兆文) have provided assistance to me. Mr.

Victor Cheng (鄭偉滔) generously lent me CD recordings. Ms. Guo Xin-xin (郭欣欣) helped to type two music examples. Last but not least, Prof. Michael E. McClellan, former Head of the Music Department, Chinese University of Hong Kong, always answered my queries on English usage promptly. It is of much regret that he did not live to see the completion of this project.

I would also like to take this opportunity to thank Prof. Chan Sau-yan (陳守仁) and Prof.

Joseph S. C. Lam (林萃青) for initiating my interest in Chinese music through their stimulating teaching in my undergraduate years at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. Mr. Tsui Ying-fai (徐英輝), Mr. Pak Tak-wan (白得雲), Prof. Yu Siu-wah (余少華) and Mr. Victor Cheng (鄭偉滔) all have provided great helps to me in my teaching of Chinese music courses in the past two decades, and I am most grateful to them.

Tsui Wan-ching March 2013

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Chapter 1 Modern Chinese Orchestra

By Yeung Wai-kit (楊偉傑)

English Translation by Tsui Wan-ching (徐允清)

Nowadays, most people first encounter Chinese music through performances of the modern Chinese orchestra. However, the Chinese orchestra is in fact modeled on the Western orchestra and has a history of several decades only.

What is “Chinese music”? People with different origins, nationalities and cultural backgrounds may have different answers to this question. Nowadays, the

“Chinese music” that we are most frequently in contact with may be orchestral music. For example, in some Hong Kong movies, especially the martial art movies, famous Chinese orchestral pieces like Fishermen’s Song on Eastern Sea (東海漁歌) (CD 1-1), Pioneers (闖將令), Generals (Sichuan Province) (四川將軍令), Ambush from All Sides (十面埋伏), Dagger Society Suite (小刀會 組曲), Heroes Conquer the River Dadu (英雄們戰勝了大渡河), etc., are being used. In fact, Chinese orchestral music is a type of new music. Traditional Chinese music is generally in small ensembles.

In the circle of Western classical music, orchestras are generally called

“philharmonic orchestra” or “symphony orchestra.” These different names are mainly used to distinguish two or more orchestras in the same city, just like

“The London Symphony Orchestra” and “The London Philharmonic Orchestra.”

In the circle of Chinese orchestra, the name of an orchestra reflects the political and sociological situations in which the orchestra is in. In Hong Kong and Macau, it is called “zhongyuetuan” (中樂團, Chinese orchestra). The Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra (香港中樂團) is the only professional Chinese orchestra in Hong Kong, which was under the management of the former Urban Council after its professionalisation in 1977. “Zhongyue” (中樂), meaning

“Chinese music,” is a neutral term politically. In Singapore, the Chinese orchestra is called “huayuetuan” (華樂團, orchestra of the ethnic Chinese). “Huazu” (華族, the Chinese tribe) is the name given to Chinese people in Singapore, and this

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cultural country. In mainland China, the Chinese orchestra is called “minyuetuan”

(民樂團, people’s orchestra) whereas in Taiwan, it is called “guoyuetuan” (國 樂團, national orchestra).

Section 1 The Rise of the Modern Chinese Orchestra

The history of the modern Chinese orchestra dates back to the early twentieth century. After the May Fourth Movement (五四運動, 1919), Chinese people were eager to develop new ways of thinking in the 1920s. There was no exception in the field of music. In this era, various music societies were formed, including the Great Union Music Society (大同樂會) of Shanghai, the Society for the Advancement of National Music (國樂改進社) and the Music Society at the Peking University ( 北京大學音樂研究所 ) of Beijing. The National Conservatory of Music (國立音樂專科學校) of Shanghai, inaugurated in 1927, is the first music school established by the government in China.

From the mid-twentieth century on, Chinese orchestral music has become the most popular type of Chinese music. The Chinese orchestra is made up of various kinds of Chinese instruments, like the dizi (笛子), sheng (笙), suona (嗩吶), pipa (琵琶), guzheng (古箏), yangqin (揚琴) and erhu (二胡). There are also instruments that were newly invented, like zhonghu (中胡), gehu (革胡), liuqin (柳琴), various sizes of ruan (阮) and wind instruments with added keys. In order to form the orchestra, each type of instruments is made in different sizes, and is divided into high-, middle-, and low-registered instruments. The number of each instrument is also expanded.

If you listen to Fishermen’s Song on Eastern Sea (東海漁歌), you will find that the dynamics of this piece is much stronger than in traditional Chinese ensemble music, like Cantonese music (廣東音樂) and jiangnan sizhu (江南絲竹). There is also more variety of timbre and more changes of tempo and texture. Traditional performance venues of Chinese music, like tea houses and private residences, are not able to accommodate such a big orchestra. This type of music can only be performed in concert halls or theatres.

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Section 2 Instruments Used in the Modern Chinese Orchestra

There are different ways of classifying musical instruments. The classification reflects people’s different concepts of music in different eras.

Traditionally, Chinese people divide musical instruments into eight categories (八音) according to the materials of which the instruments are made. These eight categories are metal (金), stone (石), silk (絲), bamboo (竹), gourd (匏), earth (土), membrane (革) and wood (木). The modern Chinese orchestra was first formed in the early twentieth century. Its instruments are divided into four families according to their ways of playing: wind instruments ( 吹管 ), plucked string instruments (彈撥), bowed string instruments (拉弦), and percussion (打擊).

Following the model of the Western orchestra, the instruments in each family are subdivided into high-, middle-, and low-registered instruments.

The instruments used in a modern Chinese orchestra generally include the followings:¹

Wind instruments: bangdi (梆笛), qudi (曲笛), xindi (新笛), dadi (大 笛), soprano sheng (高音笙), tenor sheng (次中音 笙), bass sheng (低音笙), soprano suona (高音嗩吶), alto suona (中音嗩吶), tenor suona (次中音嗩吶), bass suona (低音嗩吶), soprano guan (高音管), alto guan (中音管), bass guan (低音管)

Plucked string instruments: pipa (琵琶), yangqin (揚琴), guzheng (古箏), xiaoruan (小阮), zhongruan (中阮), daruan (大阮), sanxian (三弦), konghou (箜篌)

Bowed string instruments: gaohu (高胡), erhu (二胡), zhonghu (中胡), gehu (革 胡), bass gehu (低音革胡)

Percussion: timpani (定音鼓), paigu (排鼓), dagu (大鼓), xiaogu (小鼓), dabo (大鈸), xiaobo (小鈸), etc.

Modern Chinese orchestras are mainly found in places in which there are communities of Chinese people, including mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, Singapore, Malaysia and the Philippines. All Chinese orchestras are made

1 The families of instruments being used in modern Chinese orchestras of different regions are more or less the same. The instruments used in the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra are given here as an

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up of instruments grouped in the above four families, although the actual instruments being used may be different in different orchestras. For example, in the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra and the Taipei Chinese Orchestra (台北市立國 樂團), the bass string instruments being used are gehu (革胡) and bass gehu (低音 革胡), whereas in the Singapore Chinese Orchestra (新加坡華樂團), the cello and double bass are being used. In the China Broadcasting Chinese Orchestra (中國廣 播民族樂團 ), liuqin ( 柳琴 ) is used as the high-registered plucked string instrument, whereas in the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra, the xiaoruan (小阮) is used. Two instruments may have the same function, although their appearances are different.

In addition to the above regular instruments, some instruments may be called for in specific occasions. These instruments include banhu (板胡), jinghu (京胡), yueqin (月琴), xun (塤), bianzhong (編鐘), etc.

Section 3 The Characteristics of Chinese Orchestral Music and Its Genres

Improvisation is an important feature in traditional Chinese instrumental ensemble playing. In playing jiangnan sizhu (江南絲竹) and Cantonese music, all the performers of the ensemble are playing the same skeletal melody, but each one of them is ornamenting the melody in its own way. This process of ornamenting is called “jiahua” (加花, literally meaning “adding flowers,” i.e., decorating the main melody). In the performance of modern Chinese orchestral music, however, the performers are playing exactly what is written on the score under the direction of the conductor. Generally the performers are not allowed to “add flowers” in the w a y t h a t o n e i s s u p p o s e d t o d o i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l w a y o f p l a yi n g . When modern Chinese orchestra began to flourish in the early twentieth century, the repertoire was mostly arrangements of sizhu pieces, like Moonlight over the River in Spring (春江花月夜). Since the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949, the modern Chinese orchestra, with different groups of instruments performing together, has become a political symbol, representing the harmonious existence of different ethnic groups in this unified country. “Minzu yuetuan” (民族樂團, people’s orchestras) were formed in different regions of the

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country. Pieces arranged or composed for these orchestras have appeared in great numbers.

The pieces for modern Chinese orchestra are mostly programme music, depicting some specific persons, events or landscapes. Most of them are in single movement, divided into several sections. Multi-movement symphonies are rare.

These pieces are either arrangements or newly composed pieces. A large number of them are arrangements, as arranging pre-existing pieces is a convenient way to solve the problem of the lack of repertoire for this performing medium.

Peng Xiu-wen ( 彭修文 , 1931-1996), the founding Music Director of the China Broadcasting Chinese Orchestra (中國廣播民族樂團), arranged a large number of Chinese and Western pieces for modern Chinese orchestra in the 1950s and 1960s, among them are Stepping High (步步高 , 1954, a piece of Cantonese music by Lü Wen-cheng 呂文成), Dance of the Yao People (瑤族舞曲, 1954, a piece for Western orchestra composed by Mao Yuan (茅沅, 1926- ) and Liu Tie-shan ( 劉鐵山 1923- )), and Dum Dum ( 達姆 ‧ 達姆 , 1959, an Algerian folk song).

To compose new pieces is another way of expanding the repertoire.

Famous newly composed pieces include Terra Cotta Warriors Fantasia (秦兵馬 俑幻想曲, 1979) (CD 1-5) and the suite Twelve Months (十二月, 1984-1989) by Peng Xiu-wen (彭修文), Spring Suite (春天組曲, 1979) by Gu Guan-ren (顧冠 仁), The Beauty of Yunnan (雲南風情, 1982) by Kuan Nai-chung (關廼忠) and Tales of the Walled City (城寨風情, 1994) by Chen Ning-chi (陳能濟).

Concerto is a popular genre of Chinese orchestral music. Concertos in Western classical music are generally in three movements: a fast first movement in sonata form, followed by a slow second movement and a rondo finale. Chinese concertos are freer in form. In addition to the Western format, there are quite a number of pieces written in the form of suite.

The Butterfly Lovers Concerto (梁山伯與祝英台, 1959) is a classic piece of Chinese concerto. It is composed by He Zhan-hao (何占豪, 1933- ) and Chen Gang (陳鋼, 1935- ) for solo violin and the Western orchestra. It has been transcribed for various solo instruments, including the gaohu (高胡), erhu (二胡),

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pipa (琵琶), liuqin (柳琴), dizi (笛子), xylophone (木琴), etc.

Other famous concertos include the erhu concertos The Great Wall Capriccio (長城隨想) by Liu Wen-jin (劉文金, 1937- ) and Red Plum Capriccio (紅梅隨想 曲, 1980) by Wu Hou-yuan (吳厚元, 1946-1999), the pipa concerto Little Sisters of the Grassland (草原小姐妹, 1973) composed collectively by Wu Zu-qiang (吳 祖強, 1927- ), Wang Yan-qiao (王燕樵, 1937- ) and Liu De-hai (劉德海, 1937- ), the pipa concerto Hua Mulan (花木蘭, 1979) by Gu Guan-ren (顧冠仁), the zhongruan (中阮) concerto Reminiscences of Yunnan (雲南回憶, 1987) by Liu Xing (劉星, 1962- ), the dizi concerto The Sorrowful and Desolate Mountain (愁 空山, 1992) by Guo Wen-jing (郭文景, 1956- ), and the huqin (胡琴) concerto Fire Sacrifice (火祭, 1995) by Tan Dun (譚盾, 1957- ).

Section 4 The “Improvement” of Chinese Instruments

In a traditional sizhu (絲竹) ensemble, there is generally only one player for each type of instrument. The modern Chinese orchestra is formed by expanding the sizhu ensemble, with the model of the Western orchestra in mind.

The blending of different sonorities in a Chinese orchestra is not as good as that in a Western orchestra. It is due to the fact that each Chinese instrument has its distinctive timbre. Moreover, there are more than one temperament in Chinese instrumental music due to different constructions of the instruments. In order to develop the modern Chinese orchestra, many Chinese musicians have tried to

“improve” the performing capability, timbre and appearance of Chinese instruments. As a result, the research on the “improvement” of musical instruments has developed as an important branch of Chinese music.

The distinctive timbres of some Chinese instruments may be lost by this

“improvement” of instruments. It may be difficult to strike a balance between “the improvement for the new direction” and “the preservation of tradition.”

Lü Wen-cheng (呂文成, 1898-1981), a maestro of Cantonese music, is a pioneer in the “improvement” of Chinese musical instruments. In the 1920s, he invented the gaohu (高胡) by replacing the silk strings of the erhu (二胡) by

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steel strings, and by raising the tuning of the erhu to a perfect fourth higher. The gaohu also differs from the erhu in the way that it is being held between the two thighs of the player in performing. The gaohu has then become the major instrument of Cantonese music and Cantonese opera, and was later incorporated into the Chinese orchestra.

In the 1950s, Yang Yu-sen ( 楊雨森 , 1926-1980) of the Shanghai Conservatory of Music transformed the cello and double bass into the gehu (革胡) and bass gehu (低音革胡) respectively by changing their shapes and by mounting snake skin on the enlarged, round resonating chambers. These two instruments have become the bass bowed string instruments of the Chinese orchestra. The “ge” of “gehu” has the meaning of “improvement.”

The bass matouqin ( 低音馬頭琴 ) and bowed ruan ( 拉阮 ) used in the China Broadcasting Chinese Orchestra (中國廣播民族樂團 ) and the Central Chinese Orchestra (中央民族樂團) are similar instruments to the bass gehu.

In appearance, they look like “Chinese” or “folk,” but are in fact having the same function as the double bass. The zhonghu (中胡) is an alto instrument invented in the 1950s. Its shape is similar to the erhu, but its resonating chamber is bigger, its pole longer and its range lower. Its role is similar to that of the viola in the Western orchestra.

Modeling on the Western flute, the dizi (笛子) has been transformed by adding joints for the sake of modulation, and by adding holes to form the 7- and 9-holed dizis. In the 1960s, Zhao Song-ting (趙松庭, 1924-2001), a maestro of the dizi, tied dizis of different keys together and thus invented the paidi (排笛). In the late 1970s, Cai Jing-min (蔡敬民, 1939- ) of the Nanjing Arts Institute (南京藝術學 院) added metal keys to the bamboo dizi and invented the xinzhudi (新竹笛) to facilitate modulation in the twelve-tone equal temperament. In the early 1980s, Yin Wei-he (尹維鶴, 1940- ), a dizi player of the Hubei Province Song and Dance Troupe (湖北省歌舞團), invented the “double dizi” (雙音笛). Later, the suona (嗩 吶) and guan (管) with added keys were invented.

In each section of the Western orchestra, the instruments are divided into different registers. For example, the string section consists of the violin, viola,

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cello and double bass, each of them having its own range. The modern Chinese orchestra is built on this concept of “consort.”

In traditional Chinese music, there is no such a “consort” concept. In jiangnan sizhu (江南絲竹), for instance, the only bowed string instrument is the erhu (二胡). There are no middle- or low-registered instruments of this type. In order to adopt the “consort” concept of the Western orchestra, the zhonghu (中胡), gehu (革胡) and bass gehu (低音革胡) were invented. Plucked string instruments are rarely found in the Western orchestra. The only regular member of this group is the harp, and only occasionally would we find the lute or the guitar being used in an orchestral concert. The traditional Chinese plucked string instruments were not made to form a consort. In order to develop the Chinese orchestra, new instruments were invented.

There are pros and cons for the “improvement” of Chinese instruments.

Does this revolution really bring about “improvement”? Or does it destroy our tradition?

Section 5 The Development of Modern Chinese Orchestra

The modern Chinese orchestra has flourished in mainland China since 1949.

With the support of the government, “minyuetuan” (民樂團, people’s orchestras) have been established throughout the country. This performing medium has become the mainstream of Chinese music, and the number of new compositions for this medium is ever increasing. In Hong Kong, modern Chinese orchestras were first established in the 1950s and there have been many amateur groups. In 1977, the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra (香港中樂團) was professionalised and under the management of the former Urban Council.

This incident shows that the Hong Kong Government considers Chinese orchestral music as the representative genre of Chinese music.

The Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra has commissioned many composers from mainland China and Hong Kong to write new compositions for this performing medium. This commission system has established a platform for composers mainly trained in Western compositional techniques to experiment with Chinese

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instrumental writing. The Insect World ( 昆蟲世界 ) (CD 1-6) and Autumn Execution (秋決) by Doming Lam (林樂培, 1926- ) are experimental works of the late 1970s. Symphonies No. 7 and No. 8 by Chan Wing-wah (陳永華, 1954- ), a composer of mainly symphonic works, are written for the Chinese orchestra. In recent years, Chinese orchestral works tend to use Western avant-garde composition techniques and experiment with special sound effects. This is in contrast to the practice in earlier works, in which the melody is the main focus of the composition.

From the founding of the Great Union Music Society (大同樂會) to the present, the Chinese orchestra has a history of almost a century. It has become the mainstream of Chinese music.

The development of the Chinese orchestra has led to the emergence of large- scale compositions and the “improvement” of Chinese instruments. In order to reflect critically on this development, we need to understand traditional Chinese music. Modern Chinese orchestral music is only one type of Chinese music, and not the only type. In mainland China, the ideology favouring the “large size” leads to a loss of deserved attention to the smaller traditional Chinese ensembles. The “improvement” of Chinese instruments has also led to a change of the timbres and appearances of these instruments in pursuit of a “harmonious”

sonority in the Western sense. Has this “improvement” destroyed our own culture? This is worth our reflection.

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Listening Guide

1.1 Fishermen’s Song on Eastern Sea (東海漁歌) (CD 1-1) Information of the Recording

Orchestra: Shanghai Chinese Orchestra (上海民族樂團) Conductor: He Wu-qi (何無奇)

Title of the Record: The Martial Themes (武林春秋) (ROI, 1996) Recorded in 1960

Listening Guide

Fishermen’s Song on Eastern Sea is a piece for Chinese orchestra composed in 1959 by Gu Guan-ren (顧冠仁, 1942- ) and Ma Sheng-long (馬聖龍, 1933- 2003). This piece is based on folk materials from the Zhejiang (浙江) province and depicts the scenery of the Eastern Sea as well as the life of the fishermen. It is divided into four sections: “The Ocean at Dawn” (黎明時的海洋), “Fishing at Sea” (漁民出海捕魚), “Victory over the Storm” (戰勝驚濤駭浪) and “Joyful Return” (豐收歡樂而歸). Sections 1 and 2 are recorded on CD 1-1.

Section 1 “The Ocean at Dawn” (黎明時的海洋)

0:00 The orchestra first plays an introductory passage. Then the qudi (曲笛) brings out the theme of the introduction. Later, the music gathers momentum and the conch shell (海螺) joins in, imitating the sirens of the ships.

2:12 The plucked string instruments play a light-hearted passage. The bowed string instruments and the winds then play the main theme alternately, depicting the scenery of the harbour in the morning.

of the harbour in the morning.

Section 2 “Fishing at Sea” (漁民出海捕魚) 3:51 The main theme is restated in a slower tempo.

5:12 A fast melody is played by the winds and percussion, depicting the scene of fish-catching.

Section 3 “Victory over the Storm” (戰勝驚濤駭浪)

5:49 There are calls and responses from the suona (嗩吶) and the human voice, imitating the fishing songs sung by the fishermen.

6:12 With the accompaniment of the plucked string instruments, the bowed string instruments play a passage imitating the sound of the strong winds and waves. The music played by the wind and percussion instruments depicts the danger in fishing.

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Section 4 “Joyful Return” (豐收歡樂而歸)

8:11 The bangdi (梆笛) plays a varied reprise of the theme of the introduction.

Then a fast passage alternates with the main theme. The piece ends with a fast passage.

1.2 Moonlight over the River in Spring (春江花月夜) (CD 1-2, CD 1-3)

Information of the Recordings 1. Pipa Solo (CD 1-2)

Performed by Wei Chung-loh (衛仲樂) (pipa)

Title of the Record: Traditional Instrumental Pieces of WEI Chung-loh [sic]

(衛仲樂演奏曲集) (ROI, 1996) Recorded between the 1930s and 1960s

2. Ensemble (CD 1-3)

Orchestra: China Broadcasting Chinese Orchestra (中國廣播民族樂團) Conductor: Peng Xiu-wen (彭修文)

Title of the Record: Moods of the Seasons (春花秋月) (ROI, 1999) Recorded in 1990

Listening Guide

The Great Union Music Society (大同樂會) was founded by Zheng Guan- wen (鄭覲文, 1872-1935) in Shanghai in 1920. This Society was an amateur group with an aim in researching and learning Chinese music.

The activities of the Great Union Music Society were influenced by the

“progressive” thoughts of the May Fourth Movement. A number of maestros taught in this Society, including pipa maestros Wang Yu-ting (汪昱庭, 1872- 1951) and Cheng Wu-jia (程午嘉, 1902-1985). Moonlight over the River in Spring (春江花月夜) is an arrangement of the pipa piece The Moon over Xunyang (潯陽夜月).

The recording of CD 1-2 is a solo pipa performance by Wei Chung-loh.

Wei had a close relationship with the Great Union Music Society. He was a student of Zheng Guan-wen and an early member of the Society.

The recording of CD 1-3 is performed by an ensemble. The instruments used in this ensemble are the same as those of a sizhu ensemble, but had been

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Peng-zhang (秦鵬章, 1919-2002) and the composer Luo Zhong-rong (羅忠鎔, 1924- ). (Qin Peng-zhang was a conductor who had studied with Wei Chung-loh in the Great Union Music Society.)

The readers may compare these two performing versions of the same piece.

1.3 Instrumental Guide to the Chinese Orchestra (管弦絲竹知多少) (CD 1-4) Information of the Recording

Composer: Kwan Nai-zhong [Kuan Nai-chung] (關廼忠) (1939- ) Orchestra: Kaohsiung City Chinese Orchestra (高雄市立國樂團) Conductor: Kwan Nai-zhong [Kuan Nai-chung]

Narrator: Xiao Ya (蕭亞)

Title of the Record: Instrumental Guide to the Chinese Orchestra [sic] (管弦絲 竹知多少) (HUGO, 1992)

Recorded in 1992 Listening Guide

In the repertoire of Western orchestral works, there are several educational pieces aiming at introducing the instruments of the orchestra. One example is The Young Person’s Guide to the Orchestra by the British composer Benjamin Britten (1913-1976).²Instrumental Guide to the Chinese Orchestra [sic] (1985) by Kuan Nai-chung, a former Music Director of the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra (1986- 1990 in service), is an equivalent piece for the Chinese orchestra. This piece, making up of variations based on the folk song Jasmine (茉莉花) from the Jiangsu ( 江蘇 ) province, is divided into six sections featuring different instrumental sections: the theme, wind instruments, plucked string instruments, percussion, bowed string instruments, and the coda. It is performed by the Chinese orchestra and a narrator.

2 Other pieces functioned at introducing the instruments of the Western orchestra include The Carnival of the Animals by the French composer Camille Saint-Saëns (1835-1921) and Peter and the Wolf by the Russian composer Sergei Prokofiev (1891-1953).

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Section 1 The Theme

0:00 After an introduction played by the dizi (笛子), the whole orchestra performs Jasmine once, and then the narration begins.

Section 2 Wind Instruments

1:56 The bangdi (梆笛) plays Variation 1 of Jasmine.

2:27 The qudi (曲笛) plays Variation 2.

3:11 The sheng (笙) plays Variation 3.

4:40 The suona (嗩吶) plays Variation 4.

5:45 The guanzi (管子) plays Variation 5.

Section 3 Plucked String Instruments

6:59 The liuqin (柳琴) plays Variation 6.

7:22 The yangqin (揚琴) plays Variation 7.

8:13 The pipa (琵琶) plays Variation 8.

9:08 The ruan (阮) plays Variation 9.

10:13 The sanxian (三弦) plays Variation 10.

10:51 The guzheng (古箏) plays Variation 11.

Section 4 Percussion

11:51 A transitional passage is played by the following instruments successively: xiaotanggu (小堂鼓), xiaobo (小鈸), xiaoluo (小鑼), tangluo (堂鑼), diluo (低鑼), bangu (板鼓), bangzi (梆子), timpani (定音鼓), and xylophone (木琴).

Section 5 Bowed String Instruments

13:04 The erhu (二胡) plays the theme.

13:51 The second half of the theme is played by the gaohu (高胡).

14:08 The zhonghu (中胡) plays Variation 12.

14:43 The gehu (革胡) plays Variation 13.

15:13 The bass gehu (低音革胡) plays a transitional passage.

Section 6 The Coda

15:49 The whole orchestra plays Variation 14.

17:56 The bawu (巴烏) plays a melody, and then the whole orchestra rounds up the piece.

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1.4 An Excerpt from Terra Cotta Warriors Fantasia (秦兵馬俑幻想曲) (CD 1-5)

Information of the Recording

Composer: Peng Xiu-wen (彭修文, 1931-1996)

Orchestra: Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra (香港中樂團) Conductor: Yan Hui-chang (閻惠昌)

Title of the Record: Terra Cotta Warriors Fantasia (秦兵馬俑) (Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra, 2002)

Terra Cotta Warriors Fantasia is a classic of modern Chinese orchestral work written in the 1970s and 1980s. The composer had not yet seen the terra cotta warriors found in the mausoleum of the First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty when he wrote this work, and he based on imagination in composing the music. CD1-5 is a recording of the first section of this piece. The readers may imagine the magnificence of the terra cotta warriors when listening to this piece.

1.5 The Insect World (昆蟲世界) , The First Section, “The Busy Bees” (勤蜂 嗡嗡) (CD 1-6)

Information of the Recording

Composer: Doming Lam (林樂培, 1926- )

Orchestra: Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra (香港中樂團)

Title of the Record: In Search of Chinese New Music: Works by Doming Lam (尋找 中國新音樂：林樂培作品集) (Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra, 2006)

Doming Lam experimented with some special sound effects when he composed The Insect World in 1979. In that era, most Chinese orchestral works focused on having beautiful melodies. What Lam did was an experiment of the avant-garde music. Listen to the first section of The Insect World, “The Busy Bees,” and see how Chinese instruments imitate the sound of the bees.

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Extended Knowledge

1.1 The Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra (香港中樂團)

When the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra was established in 1973, it was a semi- professional orchestra supported by the former Urban Council. It was professionalized in 1977 with Ng Tai-kong (吳大江, 1943-2001) acting as the first Music Director.

Up to now, there have been four Music Directors for the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra: Ng Tai-kong (1977-1985 in service), Kuan Nai-chung (關廼忠, 1986- 1990 in service), Henry Shek (石信之, 1993-1997 in service) and Yan Hui-chang (閻惠昌, 1997-present). In 2001, the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra Limited was established.³

Most of the performers of the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra are from Hong Kong, mainland China, Taiwan and Singapore. Renowned musicians of this orchestra include Wong On-yuen ( 黃安源 , huqin player, former Concertmaster, Assistant Conductor and the Principal of the Bowed String Section), Hsin Hsiao-hung (辛小紅, Principal Erhu), Hsin Hsiao-ling (辛小玲, Principal Gaohu), Wang Chi-ching (王梓靜, pipa player and the Principal of the Plucked String Section), Sun Yong-zhi (孫永志, dizi player, the Principal of the Wind Section), Choo Boon-chong (朱文昌, dizi player), Tam Po-shek (譚寶碩, xiao player), Cheng Tak-wai (鄭德惠, Principal Sheng), Guo Ya-zhi (郭雅志, Principal Suona), Yim Hok-man (閻學敏, Acting Principal, Assistant Principal, and Principal Percussion), etc.

In order to solve the problem of the lack of repertoire for the Chinese orchestra, Ng Tai-kong established a system of the commission of new pieces

3 Xia Fei-yun (夏飛雲), a professor of the Shanghai Conservatory of Music, had been the Conductor- in-Residence of the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra from 1992-1993. The former Urban Council intended to appoint Peng Xiu-wen (彭修文), the Principal Conductor of the China Broadcasting Chinese Orchestra (中國廣播民族樂團), to be the Music Director of the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra after the contract of Henry Shek (石信之), its third Music Director, expired. However, Peng passed away in December 1996. Yan Hui-chang (閻惠昌) was then appointed as its fourth Music Director. Since October 2003, Yan’s title has been changed to Artistic Director and Principal Conductor.

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and the arrangement of existing pieces. This has become a characteristic system of this orchestra.

Throughout the years, the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra has commissioned and arranged more than 1,700 pieces of different styles, including The Insect World (昆蟲世界) (CD 1-6) and Autumn Execution (秋決) by Doming Lam (林樂 培), Journey to Lhasa (拉薩行) by Kuan Nai-chung, Tales of the Walled City (城寨風情) by Chen Ning-chi (陳能濟), Symphony No. 8 (This Boundless Land) (蒼茫大地) by Chan Wing-wah (陳永華).

In 2006, the project Cadenzas of Hong Kong (香江華采) was launched as a 30^thanniversary of the Orchestra. In this project, many local composers were commissioned to write pieces to depict the eighteen districts of Hong Kong.

1.2 The Maestro Conductor Peng Xiu-wen ( 彭修文 ) and the China Broadcasting Chinese Orchestra (中國廣播民族樂團)

When one talks about the China Broadcasting Chinese Orchestra, the first person he or she thinks of would be Peng Xiu-wen. Peng worked in this Orchestra from its founding in 1953 until his death in 1996, and exerted a significant influence in its development.

Peng established the four-section setting of the modern Chinese orchestra, i.e., the winds, plucked strings, bowed strings and percussion. He composed and arranged a large number of pieces for the Chinese orchestra, including Drums in Celebration of a Bumper Harvest (豐收鑼鼓); Hong Kong, the City Never Sleeps (太平山下不夜城); the tone poem The Flowing Water (流水操); and the revolutionary jingju (Peking opera) excerpt The Tumultuous Cloud (亂雲飛). He also arranged quite a number of folk songs from other countries, like the Indonesian folk song Bengawa Solo (美麗的梭羅河), as well as Western classical pieces, such as Carmen Suite by Georges Bizet (1838-1875), Pictures at an Exhibition by Modest Mussorgsky (1839-1881), etc.

The China Broadcasting Chinese Orchestra had performed in Hong Kong under the baton of Peng Xiu-wen. Peng had also been a Guest Conductor of the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra. He was supposed to take up the position of Music Director of the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra in 1996, but unfortunately

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he passed away before being able to take up this position.

The China Broadcasting Chinese Orchestra was an organisation under the China Broadcasting Arts Troupe (中國廣播藝術團). In 2003, it was combined with the Chinese Orchestra of the Chinese Film Orchestra (中國電影樂團民族樂團) to form a performing group of nearly one hundred players. Its current Music Director and Principal Conductor is Peng Jia-peng (彭家鵬, 1965- ), who is also the Music Director of the Macao Chinese Orchestra (澳門中樂團).

There have been many famous performers in the China Broadcasting Chinese Orchestra. In the early years, there were dizi players Liu Sen (劉森, 1937- ), Jian Guang-yi (簡廣易, 1944-2000), pipa player Yu Liang-mo (俞良模), liuqin player Zhang Da-sen (張大森), huqin players Wang Yi-qin (王宜勤) and Wang Guo-tong ( 王國潼 ). Nowadays, most of its members are young performers, including huqin players Jiang Ke-mei (姜克美) (Principal) and Zhang Fang-ming (張方鳴 ) (Assistant Principal), pipa player Chen Yin (陳音 ), yangqin player Zhang Gao-xiang (張高翔), dizi player Hou Chang-qing (侯長青), etc.

1.3 Yuen Shi-chun’s Reconstruction of Ancient Instruments and Improvement of Instruments

Yuen Shi-chun ( 阮仕春 ) , Research and Development Officer (Musical Instrument) of the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra, is the foremost innovator in the construction of Chinese plucked string instruments.

Yuen’s work on Chinese plucked string instruments focuses on two aspects, namely the reconstruction of ancient instruments and the improvement of instruments. He has reconstructed ancient instruments like the ruanxian (阮咸) of the Tang Dynasty, the bent-neck pipa (曲項琵琶) and the five-string pipa (五弦琵琶). He has also constructed the liuqin with two resonating chambers (雙共鳴箱柳琴) and a series of ruanxian (阮咸). Nowadays, the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra is using this series of ruanxian and has replaced the liuqin (柳琴) by xiaoruan (小阮).

In recent years, Yuen has been focusing on the improvement of bowed string

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instruments. He has replaced the snake skin of the huqin (胡琴) by the eco-friendly PET products and thus constructed a series of eco-huqins (環保胡琴).

1.4 Wenqin (文琴), the Extreme of Instrument “Innovation”

One aspect of the “improvement” of Chinese instruments is the construction of instruments with high, middle and low registers. Another aspect is the search for a unified sonority of different instruments. There is still another direction, namely the construction of instruments with multiple functions. The wenqin ( 文 琴), invented by Wen Zheng-qiu (文正球) (see the photo on p. 15 of the hardcopy of this book in Chinese version), is an example.

The wenqin combines the following instruments: the erhu (二胡), tiqin (提 琴 ), sanxian ( 三弦 ), and the harp. In addition, there is an amplifier. Other instruments built in a similar way include the “multiple-function dizi” (多功能 笛) invented by Xu Guo-ping (許國屏, 1940- ), the “banhu with two looping cords” (雙千斤板胡) invented by Ding Lu-feng (丁魯峰, 1943-2008).⁴

4 See the website of the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra:

http://www.hkco.org/big5/learning_inst_2b_2_tc.asp.

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Glossary

banhu (板胡)

A bowed string instrument in which the resonating chamber is made of a coconut shell, with a wooden board adhering on the front. It is an accompanying instrument for operas in the Shaanxi (陝西) province. Solo repertoire has been written for it since the 1950s.

concerto (協奏曲)

A musical genre in which a solo instrument or a group of solo instruments is accompanied by the orchestra.

gehu (革胡)

Low-registered bowed string instruments invented by Yang Yu-sen (楊雨森) of the Shanghai Conservatory of Music in the 1950s. The gehu and bass gehu are modeled on the cello and double bass

respectively. Their shapes are like other huqins (胡琴) and their big resonating chamber has a snake skin mounted on it. The “ge” in Chinese means “innovation” or “improvement.”

programme music (標題音樂)

A type of music expressing specific contents, which are explained by the composer in a programme or a title. Chinese instrumental music and orchestral works are mainly programme music.

sheng (笙) A Chinese wind instrument. In the traditional eight categories of instruments (八音), the sheng belongs to the gourd (匏) since part of it is made of gourd. When air is blown through the instrument, the vibration of the reeds inside produces sound. Different lengths of the bamboo rods produce different pitches. Sheng is a

multiphonic instrument and is mainly used in yayue (雅樂,

“elegant music”), northern chuida (吹打, “blowing and beating”), and jiangnan sizhu (江南絲竹). It also plays chords in modern Chinese orchestral music.

suona (嗩吶)

A double-reed wind instrument imported from the Middle East in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 C.E.). It is mainly used in folk festivals, wedding, funeral and northern chuida (吹打) music.

xun (塤) An instrument made of clay and is oval in shape. It is mainly used in yayue (雅樂).

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Chapter 2 Instrumental Solo Tradition and Its Changes

By Wong King-chung (王景松)

English Translation by Tsui Wan-ching (徐允清)

One of the most important developments in Chinese instrumental music of the twentieth century is the flourishing of the solo repertoire (see Table 2.1). There is a common misconception that Chinese instrumental solo tradition has a long history because Chinese instruments are ancient. In reality, only the guqin (古琴), pipa (琵琶) and guzheng (古箏) have a long history of solo repertoire. Other Chinese instruments, including the erhu (二胡), only began to develop their solo repertoire in the 1920s or later. Since 1949, there have been newly composed pieces for the yangqin (揚琴), liuqin (柳琴), sheng (笙), dizi (笛子), etc., that differ from traditional solo pieces. New pieces have been written for the guqin, pipa and guzheng as well. Such examples include Little Sisters of the Grassland (草原小姐妹, 1973) for pipa by Liu De-hai (劉德海) and others, A Battle against the Typhoon (戰颱風, 1965) for guzheng by Wang Chang-yuan (王昌元).

Table 2.1 Important Chinese Instrumental Solo Pieces

Dizi (笛子) Three, Five, Seven (三五七) , Flying Partridge (鷓鴣飛), A Trip to Gusu (姑蘇行)

Sheng (笙) The Phoenix Spreads Its Wings (鳳凰展翅), A Melody from Shanxi (晉調)

Suona (嗩吶) Hundreds of Birds Paying Tribute to the Phoenix (百鳥朝鳳) Guanzi (管子) Driving the Donkey (放驢)

Pipa (琵琶) Ambush from All Sides (十面埋伏), On the Frontiers (塞上曲) Guqin (古琴) Flowing Water (流水), A Piece from Guangling (廣陵散) Zhongruan (中阮) Reminiscences of Yunnan (雲南回憶)

Liuqin (柳琴) Spring on Yi River (春到沂河)

Guzheng (古箏) Lotus Emerging out of Water (出水蓮) Sanxian (三弦) Eighteen Beats (十八板)

Yangqin (揚琴) Festive Tianshan (節日的天山)

Erhu (二胡) A Fine Evening (良宵), Reflection of the Moon on the Second Spring (二泉映月), The Great Wall Capriccio (長城隨想) Gaohu (高胡) Birds Go Back to Forest (鳥投林)

Banhu (板胡) Triumphant Return of the Red Army (紅軍哥哥回來了) Zhonghu (中胡) On the Grassland (草原上)

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“Traditional” and “modern” Chinese instrumental solo pieces differ in their styles in composition and performance practice. The development of the solo repertoire of erhu, dizi, pipa and guzheng will be introduced in this chapter, with a focus on their compositional techniques and performance practice. The changes from the “traditional” to the “modern” solo repertoire will also be discussed.

Section 1 Liu Tian-hua (劉天華) and the Modern Erhu Solo Pieces

The twentieth century is an important epoch in the development of the Chinese instrumental solo repertoire. This development has been influenced by various thoughts. The May Fourth Movement (1919) brought about the thinking

“Chinese in essence, Western in practice” (中學為體、西學為用) and led to the movement of the “improvement” of Chinese instruments, and the writing of solo pieces for Chinese instruments. Intellectuals of this period discussed these issues actively and put them into practice. Liu Tian-hua (劉天華, 1895-1932), a pioneer in the development of the erhu solo repertoire, is a good example of this kind of intellectual.⁵

Liu Tian-hua was born in Jiangyin (江陰) of the Jiangsu (江蘇) province. He actively took part in the areas of performance, music education and composition.

In 1912, Liu came to Shanghai and worked in the Western Shanghai Open Theatre (滬西開明劇社) while at the same time learned orchestral instruments and the piano. He was in despair in 1915 as his father had passed away, and he was sick and jobless. In such a circumstance, he began to compose Sigh of Ailment (病中吟) (CD1-7) which was finished around 1918. In the

5 Liu Tian-hua played an important role in the development of traditional Chinese instrumental music.

Erhu player Hua Yan-jun (華彥鈞), or Abing (阿炳) (1893-1950), is another important figure in the erhu solo tradition. Hua Yan-jun’s father was a Taoist monk. Hua was in contact with Taoism and began to learn music when he was young. He became blind when he was 35, and then became a street musician in Wuxi (無錫). He had the nickname “Abing the Blind” (瞎子阿炳). In the 1940s, musicologists Yang Yin-liu (楊蔭瀏, 1899-1984) and Cao An-he (曹安和, 1905-2004) visited Abing and recorded his performance in 1950, and thus his erhu pieces have been preserved. His three erhu pieces, namely Listening to the Pines (聽松), Reflection of the Moon on the Second Spring (二泉映 月), and Chilly Spring (寒春風曲), and three pipa pieces, namely Waves Washing the Beach (大浪淘沙), The Departure of Lady Zhao-jun (昭君出塞), and Dragon Boats (龍船) were recorded. Among

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following decade, he learned the erhu, pipa, guqin, sanxian (三弦), and began to familiarise himself with traditional Chinese genres like Kunqu (崑曲), sizhu (絲竹) and luogu (鑼鼓). In 1927, he began to learn the violin and composition in the Music Department of the Peking University ( 燕京大學 ) of Beijing, and established the Society for the Advancement of National Music (國樂改進社) with an aim to improve Chinese music. Unfortunately he died untimely at the age of thirty-seven from a disease while he was doing field research.

In 2000, the film Liu Tian-hua (劉天華) was launched in mainland China.

The protagonist is Chen Jun (陳軍), a fourth generation erhu student of Liu Tian- hua. The film talks about the sorrowful days of Liu in 1914 when he was jobless, sick and under the trauma of his father’s death. He could only express his sadness by playing the erhu. A new hope came when he received an appointment letter from Cai Yuan-pei ( 蔡元培 ), the Vice-chancellor of the Peking University. This film recounts the compositional process of many of Liu’s famous pieces, including Moonlit Night (月夜), Bird-calls in the Mountain (空山鳥語) and A Fine Evening (良宵), and ends with a performance of March towards Brightness (光明行) in a concert.

The film Liu Tian-hua, in recounting the life of Liu and the stories of his erhu compositions, depicts vividly the era in which there was an influx of Western culture. Liu proposed an “improvement of Chinese music.”⁶In addition to reconstructing the erhu and improving its playing techniques, he composed ten erhu solo pieces and thus created a solo tradition for this instrument which was till then only an accompanying instrument to Chinese opera or an instrument in Chinese instrumental ensembles. Liu also wrote three pipa solos, one instrumental ensemble piece, forty-seven erhu études and fifteen pipa études. He founded the Society for the Advancement of National Music (國樂改進社) with some friends and proposed an improvement of Chinese music. His life is an epitome of the development of Chinese music in the twentieth century.

6 Liu Tian-hua was not the first one to propose the improvement of Chinese music. Fei Shi (匪石, 1884-1959) published an article entitled “On the Improvement of Chinese Music” (中國音樂改良說) in Vol. 6 of Zhejiang Tide (浙江潮) (June 1903) in which he proposed “the improvement of Chinese music by imitating Western music.”

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The era in which Liu Tian-hua lived, i.e., the early twentieth century, is an age in which Chinese and Western cultures met. The intellectuals in this era were aware of their role in the fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. In the article

“The Beginning of the Society for the Advancement of National Music” (國樂改進 社緣起), published in the first volume of The New Music Tide (新樂潮) in June 1927, Liu Tian-hua and others wrote, “Nowadays there are people learning Western instruments and singing, but this is confined to the elite circle. There is still a long way to go before music is popularised among the laymen.”

In that era, the type of music that the elites learned was Western classical music. Chinese music was being neglected. Liu and others thought that the reason was that “the government does not promote it, and Chinese music is not taught in school. Parents object their children’s learning of Chinese music and the society looks down on it. Chinese music is played by low-ranked musicians only.

This is a depressing situation.” The opinion of Liu and others shows clearly the low status of Chinese music in the early twentieth century.

The neglect of Chinese music by the Chinese in the early twentieth century prompted the intellectuals to improve Chinese music. Liu Tian-hua founded the Society for the Advancement of National Music with some friends and published the Music Magazine (音樂雜誌). The objectives of the movement of

“improving Chinese music” were to popularise music education and to revolutionise Chinese music by modeling on Western music. They aimed at changing the way of thinking of Chinese people and bringing new hope to the country. They thought that music could play an important role in raising the self-esteem of Chinese people and in establishing a cultural identity.

There is a close relationship between the improvement of Chinese instruments, the establishment of the solo repertoire, and the rise of the Chinese orchestra (see Chapter 1). In the early twentieth century, most intellectuals thought that Chinese instruments had the following shortcomings: the volume was low, the range was narrow, the construction and making of instruments were not standardised, and the instruments did not facilitate modulation. Because of these shortcomings, Chinese instruments did not meet the need for performing newly composed pieces. As a result, from the mid-twentieth century on,

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instruments (like replacing the silk strings with the strings of the violin), enlarging their range (like increasing the number of strings), adding auxiliaries to the instruments (like keys and springs), and adopting the Western twelve- tone equal temperament for the sake of modulation (like changing the positions of the frets on the pipa).

One of the aims of the “improvement” of Chinese instruments is to facilitate the performance of newly composed pieces that require new performing techniques. This concept is modeled on the aesthetics of Western classical music.

Traditional Chinese instruments are mainly high- or middle-registered instruments, and bass instruments are lacking. In order to perform pieces in the concept of Western consort music, with soprano, alto, tenor and bass voices, many bass instruments, like the daruan (大阮), zhonghu (中胡) and gehu (革胡), were newly invented.

Sigh of Ailment (病中吟, 1918), the first erhu piece by Liu Tian-hua, represents the fusion of compositional concepts of Chinese and Western cultures.

This piece is written in ternary form (A-B-A) with a coda. The third section reuses materials of the first section. Liu also adopts some playing techniques of the violin in composing this piece, like the repetitious slurs.

Sigh of Ailment adopts a Western formal structure and the technique of phrasal expansion found in Western music. The slurs found in the second section and the coda resemble violin music. This piece is a good example of the idea of

“Chinese in essence, Western in practice.” In this way, Liu Tian-hua has raised the status of erhu from its role of an accompanying instrument in Chinese opera and sizhu ensemble to a solo instrument, and has caused a fusion of Chinese and Western music. That is the reason why people call the erhu “the Chinese violin.”

Section 2 New Pieces for Dizi (笛子)

When the Chinese Communist Party was in power in 1949, it followed the cultural policy of the former Soviet Union in proposing that “art and literature should be in the service for the workers and farmers” (文藝為工農兵服務). Mao Ze-dong (毛澤東) encouraged the artists to “take Western concepts and adapt

Listening to Chinese Music