結論與建議

第五章討論與建議

第二節結論與建議

僅管過去對於老年人在身體活動上的研究已有許多正面的證明，然而在與作業轉換相關執行功能的議題上還沒有一個一致的結果，對於運動類型的研究也少有著墨。本研究結果透過行為資料及腦波 ERP 資料證實了從事身體活動的老年人在執行控制功能中的工作記憶、抑制能力及認知彈性上會有所助益，也在 P3 振幅上發現支持的結果，但在 P3 潛伏期上本研究沒有發現組別上的差異。

除此之外，運動類型的部份我們發現除了過去研究常用的有氧運動外，較有策略的開放性運動也能達到與有氧運動一樣甚至更好的效果，過去的研究於運動類型的探討並不多，更少有在腦波上的證據，本研究結合行為資料及腦波資料將運動類型的討論更詳細且具體，也發現除了閉鎖性運動外，富有策略的開放性運動也是大有助益。本研究也將一改過去 Kramer(1999)認為阻力運動對老年人在作業轉換上表現沒有正面成效之推論，或許較有策略性的阻力運動對老年人作業轉換上的效益可以達到與一般有氧運動相同，甚至更好的效果。我們認為老年人為了減緩自身的退化及增加生活上的品質，應該規律且多方面的嘗詴不同類型的運。

二、建議

本研究建議依研究方法、資料內容及樣本差異描述有以下四點，依議題順序討論如下：

(一)、本研究由於是橫斷式研究，因此在樣本的選取及運動類型上的抽樣難免產生實驗誤差，進而在統計及結果上產生誤差，且對研究的結果也無法較不易進行追蹤及觀察。建議未來對此議題有興趣的學者可以進行前後測或是縱貫性質的研究，以彌補研究方法上的缺失。

(二)、本研究缺乏一些受詴者的基本資料，如 BMI 值、IQ 及 BDNF 基因等等，

使某些推論無法得到完整的證實，於未來的研究應當詳加注意。

(三)、本研究男女比例及 BDI 量表分數上略嫌失衡，未來研究應該於這些背景因素上多加注意，盡量平衡各組之間的差異，以免影響到分析的結果及統計的推論。

(四)、由於近年來腦照影技術的進步，未來可以考慮採用如 fMRI 的精密的腦照影技術來檢驗不同類型運動的效果。

參考文獻

中文文獻

王影(2005)。慢跑對老年人心肺功能的影響。心血管康復醫學雜誌，14, 2，

104-105.

內政部戶政司(2012)。人口統計處 (近年各縣市人口年齡結構重要指標)。資料引用自 http://www.ris.gov.tw/37。

石恒星、洪聰敏(2006)。身體活動與大腦神經認知功能老化。台灣運動心理學報，

8，35-63。

曾科達(2009)。從認知神經生理角度探討不同身體活動量與不同性別的老年人在

作業轉換表現之差異。未出版碩士論文，國立成功大學碩，台南市。

洪小雲(2012)。跳舞機運動介入對女性老年人大腦神經認知功能之影響。未出版碩士論文，台北市立教育大學，台北市。

英文文獻

Ahmed, F., Tessarollo, L., Thiele, C., & Mocchetti, I. (2008). Brain-derived

neurotrophic factor modulates expression of chemokine receptors in the brain.

Brain Research, 1227, 1-11. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.05.086.

Anderson-Hanley, C., Arciero, P. J., Brickman, A. M., Nimon, J. P., Okuma, N., Westen, S. C., . . . Zimmerman, E. A. (2012). Exergaming and older adult cognition: A cluster randomized clinical trial. American Journal of Preventive

Medicine, 42(2), 109-119. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2011.10.016.

Anstey, K., & Christensen, H. (2000). Education, Activity, Health, blood pressure and apolipoproteine as predictors of cognitive change in old age: a review.

Gerontology, 46, 163–177.

Arent, S. M., Landers, D. M., & Etnier, J. L. (2000). The effcets of exercise on mood in older adults: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity,

8(4), 407-430.

Barnes, D. E., Yaffe, K., Satariano, W. A., & Tager, I. B. (2003). A longitudinal study of cardiorespiratory fitness and cognitive function in healthy older adults. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 51, 459–465.

Bartholow, B. D., Pearson, M. A., Dickter, C. L., Sher, K. J., Fabiani, M., & Gratton, G. (2005). Strategic control and medial frontal negativity: beyond errors and response conflict. Psychophysiology, 42, 33-42.

Bharath, S., Gangadhar, B. N., & Janakiramaiah, N. (2000). P300 in family studies of schizophrenia: review and critique. International Journal of Psychophysiology,

38, 11.

Bojko, A., Kramer, A. F., & Peterson, M. S. (2004). Age equivalence in switch costs for prosaccade and antisaccade tasks. Psychology and Aging, 19, 226–34.

Boucard, G. K., Albinet, C.T., Bugaiska, A., Bouquet, C. A., Clarys, D., & Audiffren, M. (2012). Impact of physical activity on executive functions in aging: A

selective effect on inhibition among old adults. Journal of Sport & Exercise

Psychology, 34, 808-827.

Burke, S. N., & Barnes, C. A. (2006). Neural plasticity in the ageing brain. Nature

Reviews Neuroscience, 7, 30-40.

Cao, L., Liu, X., Lin, E. J., Wang, C., Choi, E. Y., Riban, V., . . . During, M. J. (2010).

Environmental and genetic activation of a brain-adipocyte BDNF/leptin axis causes cancer remission and inhibition. Cell, 142(1), 52-64. doi:

10.1016/j.cell.2010.05.029.

Caspersen, C. J., Powell, K. E., & Christenson, G. M. (1985). Physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness：Definitions and distinctions for health–related research. Public Health Reports, 100(2), 126-131.

Churchill, J. D., Galvez, R., Colcombe, S., Swain, R. A., Kramer, A. F., & Greenough, W. T. (2002). Exercise, experience and the aging brain. Neurobiology of Aging,

23(5), 941-955.

Coffey, C. E., Lucke, J.F., Saxton, J. A., Ratcliff, G., Unitas, L. J., & Billig, B. (1998).

Sex differences in brain aging. Archives of Neurology, 55(2), 169-179.

Colcombe, S. J., Erickson, K. I., Raz, N., Webb, A. G., Cohen, N. J., & McAuley, E., et al. (2003). Aerobic fitness reduces brain tissue loss in aging humans. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences,

58(2), 176–180.

Colcombe, S. J., & Kramer, A.F., (2003). Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: a meta-analytic study. Psychological Science, 14, 125-130.

Colcombe, S. J., Kramer, A. F., Erickson, K. I., Scalf, P., McAuley, E., Cohen, N. J., Webb, A., Jerome, G. J., Marquez, D, X., & Elavsky, S. (2004). Cardiovascular fitness, cortical plasticity, and aging. Proceedings of the National Academy of

Sciences, 101, 3316-3321.

Dustman, R. E., Emmerson, R. Y., Ruhling, R. O., Shearer, D. E., Steinhaus, L. A., Johnson, S. C., Bonekat, H. W., & Shigeoka, J. W. (1990). Age and fitness effects on EEG, ERPs, visual sensitivity, and cognition. Neurobiology of Aging, 11, 193-200.

Endres, M., Gertz, K., Lindauer, U., Katchanov, J., Schultze, J., Schrock, H., Nickenig, G., Kuschinsky, W., Dirnagl, U., & Laufs, U. (2003). Mechanisms of stroke protection by physical activity. Annals of Neurology, 54(5), 582–590.

Gajewski, P.D., Hengslter, J.G., Golka, K., Falkenstein, M. & Beste, C. (2011). The met-allele of the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism enhances task switching in elderly. Neurobiology of Aging, 32(2737), 7-19.

Gajewski, P. D., Wall, N. W., Schapkin, S. A., Erdmann, U., Freude, G., &

Falkenstein, M. (2010). Effects of aging and job demands on cognitive flexibility assessed by task switching. Biological Psychology, 85, 187-199.

Goldstein, J. M., Jerram, M., Poldrack, R., Anagnoson, R., Nikos, H. C., & Goodman, J. M. (2005). Sex Differences in Prefrontal Cortical Brain Activity During fMRI of Auditory Verbal Working Memory. Neuropsychology, 4, 509-519.

Gomez-Pinilla, F., So, V., & Kesslak, J. P. (1998). Spatial learning and physical activity contribute to the induction of fibroblast growth factor: neural substrates for increased cognition associated with exercise. Neuroscience, 85(1), 53-61.

Hawkes, T. D.(2012). Effect of the long-term health practices of Tai-Chi, Meditation and aerobics on adult human execution attention: A cross-sectional study

(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Oregon, Unite State.

Head, D., Raz, N., Gunning-Dixon, F., Williamson, A., & Acker, J. D. (2002).

Age-related differences in the course of cognitive skill acquisition: The role of regional cortical shrinkage and cognitive resources. Psychology and Aging, 17, 72-8.

Hillman, C. H., Weiss, E. P., Hagberg, J. M., & Hatfield, B. D. (2002). The

relationship to age and cardiovascular fitness to cognitive and motor processes.

Psychophysiology, 39, 1 –10.

Hillman, C. H., Kramer, A. F., Belopolsky, A. V., & Smith, D. P. (2006). A cross-sectional examination of age and physical activity on performance and event-related brain potentials in a task switching paradigm.

International Journal of Psychophysiology, 59, 30-39.

Kawashima, R., & Koizumi, H. (2003). Learning Therapy. Sendai: Tohoku University Press.

Keita K., & Yuji T. (2010). Regular physical activity improves executive function during task switching in young adults. International Journal of

Psychophysiology, 75, 304-311.

Kleim, J. A., Swain, R. A., Armstrong, K. A., Napper, R. M., Jones, T. A., &

Greenough, W. T. (1998). Selective synaptic plasticity within the cerebellar cortex following complex motor skill learning. Neurobiology of Learning and

Memory, 69(3), 274-289.

Klintsova, A. Y., Dicksonb, E., Yoshidab, R., Greenough, W. T. (2004). Altered expression of BDNF and its high-affinity receptor TrkB in response to complex motor learning and moderate exercise. Brain Research, 1028(1), 92-104.

Kramer, A. F., Hahn, S., Cohen, N. J., Banich, M. T., McAuley, E., Harrison, & C. R.

et al. (1999). Ageing, fitness and neurocognitive function. Nature, 400(6743), 418-419.

Kramer, F., Hahn S. & McAuley, E. (2000). Influence of aerobic fitness on the neurocognitive function of older adults. Journal of Aging and Physical Acitivity, 8, 379-385.

Kray, J., & Lindenberger, U. (2000). Adult age differences in task switching.

Psychology and Aging, 15, 126–147.

Lees, A. (2003). Science and the major sports: A review. Journal of Sports Sciences,

21, 707-732.

Marchal, G., Rioux, P., Petit-Taboue M. T., Sette, G., Travere,, J. M., & Le Poec, C.

(1992). Regional Cerebral Oxygen Consumption, Blood Flow, and Blood Volume in Healthy Human Aging. Archives of Neurology, 49(10),1013-1020.

McDowell, K., Herick, S.E., Santa Maria, D.L., & Hatfield, B.D. (2003). Aging, physical activity, and cognitive processing: an examination of P300.

Neurobiology of Aging, 24, 597-606.

Meiran, N. (1996). Reconfiguration of processing mode prior to task performance.

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22,

1423-1442, 4.

Meltzer, C. C., Becker, J. T., Price, J. C., & Moses-Kolko, E. (2003). Position

emission tomography imaging of the aging brain. Neuroimaging Clinics of North

America, 13(4), 759-767.

Mosley, M, Bammer, R. I., & Illes, J. (2002). Diffusion-tensor imaging of cognitive performance. Brain and Cognition, 50, 396-413.

Park, D. C., Lautenschlager, G., Hedden, T., Davidson, N. S., Smith, A. D., & Smith, P. K. (2002).Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span. Psychology and Aging, 17, 299-320.

Polich, J. (1996). Meta-analysis of P3 normative aging studies. Psychophysiology, 33, 334-353.

Polich, J., & Lardon, M. T. (1997). P300 and long-term physical exercise.

Electroenceph-alogr and clinic Neurophysiol, 103, 493–498.

Pontifex, M. B., Hillman, C. H., & Polich, J. (2009). Age, physical fitness, and attention: P3a and P3b. Psychophysiology, 46, 379–387.

Raz, N. (2000). Aging of the brain and its impact on cognitive performance:

integration of structural and functional findings. In F. I. M. Craik & T. A . Salthouse (Eds.), The Handbook of Aging and Cognition (pp. 1-90). Mahwah, NJ：Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Rogers, R. D., & Monsell, S. (1995). Costs of a predictable switch between simple cognitive tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology General, 124, 207-231.

Rosenzweig M. R., & Bennett E. L.(1996). Psychobiology of plasticity: effects of training and experience on brain and behavior. Behavioural Brain Research, 78, 57–65.

Rossi, S., Miniussi, C., Pasqualetti, P., Babiloni, C., Rossini, P. M., & Cappa, S. F.

(2004). Age-related functional changes of prefrontal cortex in long-term memory:

repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation study. The Journal of Neuroscience,

24, 7939-7944.

Schaie, K. W., & Hofer, S. M. (2001). Longitudinal studies in aging research. In:

J Birren, KW Schaie, eds. Handbook of the Psychology of Aging. 5th Ed.

San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 53–77.

Scisco, J. L., Leynes, P. A., & Keng, J.(2008). Cardiovascular fitness and executive control during task-switching: An ERP study. International

Journal of Psychophysiology, 69, 52-60.

Shetty, A. K., Hattiangady, B., Rao, M. S., & Shuai, B. (2011). Deafferentation enhances neurogenesis in the young and middle aged hippocampus but not in the aged hippocampus. Hippocampus, 21, 631–646.

Spirduso, W. W., & Clifford, P. (1978). Replication of age and physical activity effects on reaction and movement time. The Journal of Gerontology, 33(1), 26-30.

Spirduso, W. W., Francis, K. L., & MacRae, P. G. (2005). Physical Dimensions of

Aging. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Swain, R. A., Harris, A. B., Wiener, E. C., Dutka, M. V., Morris, H. D., Theien, B. E., Konda, S., Engberg, K., Lauterbur, P. C., & Greenough, W. T. (2003). Prolonged exercise induces angiogenesis and increases cerebral blood volume in primary motor cortex of the rat. Neuroscience, 117, 1037–1046.

Themanson, J. R., Hillman, C. H., & Curtin, J. J. (2006). Age and physical activity influences on action monitoring during task switching. Neurobiology of Aging,

27, 1335-1345.

Van Petten, C., Plante, E., Davidson, P. S. R., Kuo, T. Y., Bajuscak, L., & Glisky, E.

L. (2004). Memory and executive function in older adults: Relationships with temporal and prefrontal gray matter volumes and white matters hyperintensities.

Neuropsychologia, 42, 1313-1335.

Vaynman, S., & Gomez-Pinilla, F. (2005). License to run: exercise impacts functional plasticity in the intact and injured central nervous system by using neurotrophins.

Neurorehabil. Neurorehabil Neural Repair, 19, 283–295.

Wayslyshyn, C., Verhaeghen, P., & Sliwinski, M. J. (2011). Aging and Task Switching: A Meta-Analysis. Psychology and Aging, 26(1), 15-20.

Whalley, L. J., Deary, I. J., Appleton, C. L., & Starr, J. M. (2004). Cognitive reserve and the neurobilolgy of cognitive aging. Aging Research reviews, 3, 369-382.

West, R. (1996). An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 272-292.

Zheng, H., Liu, Y., Li, W., Yang, B., Chen, D., Wang, X…. Halberg, F. (2005).

Beneficial effects of exercise and its molecular mechanisms on depression in rats.

Behav. Brain Research, 168(1), 47–55.

Zhu, H., Zhang, J., Sun, H., Zhang, L., Liu, H., Zeng, X., Yang, Y., & Yao, Z. (2011).

An enriched environment reverses the synaptic plasticity deficit induced by chronic cerebral hypoperfusion. Neuroscience Letters, 502, 71-75.

附錄一受詴者同意書受詴者 ID

實驗參與者同意書

本人在此聲明本人健康情形良好，並願意參加先生所主持之研究計畫。

此研究主要探討運動參與及類型對於銀髮族認知功能的效益。在每次實驗時，我將會被要求戴上電極帽收集腦波資料，我了解這些實驗器材對我身體並無傷害，

我將配合實驗者的說明執行一般的實驗作業，直到實驗成功完成為止。本實驗為做認知相關的電腦作業並收集腦波資料。簡而言之，我非常願意也非常誠意在實驗進行的過程中，盡全力參與及配合實驗者的要求。

我知道在實驗進行當中，我有權力在任何時候要求終止參與實驗。

底下為我的簽名，證明我已經閱讀並遵守本同意書之一切聲明。

＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿

實驗參與者簽名日期