颱風是西北太平洋地區的重要天氣現象之一,對於人類生活影響 甚鉅,因此颱風數量年際變化的模擬與機制探討有其重要性。本研究 計算海表面溫度與颱風數量間之相關係數發現,西北太平洋颱風數量 之年際變化與傳統用於定義 ENSO 事件的 Niño3.4(120°-170°W,5°S- 5°N)海溫相關不大。但與東北太平洋(ENP, 130°-170°W,10°-25°N) 海溫間存在高度正相關,而與北印度洋海溫則有高度負相關。本研究 進一步使用 Weather Research and Forecasting(WRF)區域氣候模式,
水平解析度 30 公里,進行 NWP(105°E-180°,0°-40°N)、NP(105°E- 120°W,5°S-45°N)與 IOP(45°E-185°W,20°S-40°N)三組不同網區域 之模擬,討論中、東太平洋和印度洋與青藏高原海陸分佈效應對於西 北太平洋颱風數量年際變化的影響。
2000-2010 年的氣候模擬中,NWP、NP 與 IOP 三組模擬皆能有效 掌握季風槽、副熱帶高壓等大尺度環流特徵。NWP 與 NP 氣候模擬相
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氣候上颱風數量的模擬結果,JTWC 在 2000-2010 年間平均每年 6-11 月生成 19.1 個颱風,NWP 與 NP 分別模擬出每年 29.9 與 25.9 個
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中沿 88°E 北部陸地增溫距平較南部印度洋大,此現象將導致海陸溫 差增大。而海陸溫差增大應該使季風環流增強,故海陸溫差效應可能 不是影響 2010 年季風槽減弱的主要因素。IOwarm+2與 IOwarm模擬之陸地 溫度相近,受北印度洋增溫影響,IOwarm+2海陸溫差減小,此現象將造 成季風槽減弱。此為印度洋海溫影響西北太平洋颱風數量之重要效應 之一。
海洋提供給大氣之能量,如潛熱通量也是影響颱風生成與發展之 重要因素,卻較少被列入颱風生成指數中。2010 年 IOwarm模擬,西北 太平洋地區海溫為正距平,但海洋供給大氣的潛熱通量卻較少。IOwarm+2 實驗之潛熱通量更大幅度降低,並且潛熱通量減少與低層風速減小分 佈吻合。這結果顯示,在西北太平洋海溫正距平的狀況下,北印度洋 海溫的增暖,所伴隨的東風距平抵消氣候盛行之西風,使低層風速減 小,這將造成西北太平洋地區西北太平洋地區季風槽減弱、潛熱通量 減少,產生不利於颱風生成的條件。此應為印度洋增暖與西北太平洋 颱風數量遙相關的重要因素之一。
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表3.1Nino3.4、EIO、ENP及WSP各季節海表面溫度距平和西北太平洋6-11月颱風數量在不同年代之相關係數表,括號中為去除線性趨勢後之相 關係數,其中*號代表通過95%信賴度統計顯著性檢定。 WSP SST anomaly SON(0) -0.10 (-0.12) -0.26 (-0.16) -0.23 (-0.19) -0.50* (-0.36)
JJA(0) -0.18 (-0.21) -0.33* (-0.23) -0.36* (-0.31*) -0.57* (-0.46*)
MAM(0) -0.30* (-0.33*) -0.42* (-0.34*) -0.47* (-0.44*) -0.58* (-0.46*)
NDJ(-1) -0.27* (-0.29*) -0.31* (-0.22) -0.21 (-0.18) -0.37* (-0.23)
ENP SST anomaly SON(0) 0.22 (0.23) 0.24 (0.30*) 0.36* (0.42*) 0.57* (0.51*)
JJA(0) 0.30* (0.30*) 0.31* (0.38*) 0.40* (0.49*) 0.54* (0.50*)
MAM(0) 0.28* (0.28*) 0.27 (0.31*) 0.38* (0.44*) 0.45* (0.35)
NDJ(-1) 0.10 (0.10) 0.09 (0.13) 0.09 (0.16) 0.19 (0.08)
EIO SST anomaly SON(0) -0.12 (-0.26*) -0.44* (-0.35*) -0.37* (-0.33*) -0.59* (-0.46*)
JJA(0) -0.09 (-0.18) -0.40* (-0.29*) -0.37* (-0.33*) -0.56* (-0.41*)
MAM(0) -0.12 (-0.19) -0.37* (-0.25) -0.36* (-0.31*) -0.52* (-0.39*)
NDJ(-1) 0.05 (0.05) -0.27 (-0.08) -0.26 (-0.16) -0.49* (-0.30)
Niño3.4 anomaly SON(0) 0.02 (0.02) 0.02 (0.05) 0.17 (0.20) 0.24 (0.25)
JJA(0) 0.06 (0.06) 0.07 (0.11) 0.21 (0.27) 0.28 (0.32)
MAM(0) -0.10 (-0.11) -0.16 (-0.10) -0.03 (0.02) 0.02 (-0.02)
NDJ(-1) -0.05 (-0.06) -0.16 (-0.14) -0.24 (-0.22) -0.23 (-0.26)
Period 1951~2010 1961~2010 1971~2010 1981~2010
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表 5.1 NWP、NP 及 IOP 三組實驗中,颱風數量年際變化模擬與觀測間之相關係數表。其中*號代 表通過 99%信賴度統計顯著性檢定。
模擬實驗 颱風數量年際變化相關係數
NWP 0.35
NP 0.60
IOP 0.78*
表 5.2 JTWC 2010 觀測與 IOwarm、IOwarm+2兩組模擬資料中,颱風平均每年生成數量以及平均每年 較氣候減少颱風數量統計表。
JTWC2010 IOwarm IOwarm+2
平均生成數量 13 12.8 9.4 較氣候減少數量 6.1 5.4 8.8
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(a) NWP
(b) NP
(c) IOP
圖 2.1 實驗設計第一部分 WRF 區域氣候模式三組實驗之模擬範圍。(a)NWP、(b) NP 與(c) IOP。
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圖 2.2 實驗設計第二部分 IOwarm+2模擬實驗中,北印度洋海溫人工增溫 2℃之區域(紅色陰影)。
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(a) NDJ(-1)
(b) MAM(0)
(c) JJA(0)
(d) SON(0)
(e) DJF(0)
圖 3.1 1981-2010 年各季節海表面溫度和西北太平洋 6-11 月颱風數量之空間相關分佈圖,藍色(紅 色)陰影為通過 95%信賴度統計顯著性檢定之負(正)相關區域,(a)前一年 11 月至當年 1 月,(b)當年 3-5 月,(c)當年 6-8 月,(d)當年 9-11 月,(e)當年 12 月至隔年 2 月。
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(a) NCEP 850hPa vorticity (2000-2010) (c) NP 850hPa vorticity (2000-2010)
(b) NWP 850hPa vorticity (2000-2010) (d) IOP 850hPa vorticity (2000-2010)
圖 4.1 2000-2010 年 7-9 月(a)NCEP、(b)NWP、(c)NP 及(d)IOP 模擬實驗之 850hPa 風場(ms-1)與渦度 場(10-5s-1)氣候平均值。
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(a) NCEP vertical wind shear (2000-2010) (c) NP vertical wind shear (2000-2010)
(b) NWP vertical wind shear (2000-2010) (d) IOP vertical wind shear (2000-2010)
圖 4.2 2000-2010 年 7-9 月(a)NCEP、(b)NWP、(c)NP 及(d)IOP 模擬實驗之 200-850hPa 垂直風切大 小(ms-1)氣候平均值。
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(a) NCEP 400hPa Omega (2000-2010) (c) NP 400hPa Omega (2000-2010)
(b) NWP 400hPa Omega (2000-2010) (d) IOP 400hPa Omega (2000-2010)
圖 4.3 2000-2010 年 7-9 月(a)NCEP、(b)NWP、(c)NP 及(d)IOP 模擬實驗之 400hPa 垂直運動(ω)場 (10-2Pas-1)氣候平均值。
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(a) JTWC
(b) NWP
(c) NP
(d) IOP
圖 4.4 (a) JTWC、(b) NWP、(c) NP 及(d) IOP 模式實驗之颱風生成點分佈圖,右上角數字為平均每 年生成個數,框格中之百分比為該區域佔平均每年生成數量之百分比。
19.1
18% 8%
60% 15%
18.2
18% 8%
54% 20%
29.9
31% 16%
38% 15%
25.9
25% 15%
39% 21%
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圖 5.1 1981-2010 年西北太平洋 6-11 月颱風數量之時間序列圖,縱軸單位為標準差,綠色虛線框出 模擬實驗所包含的年份。
-3.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00 1.00 2.00
1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008
JTWC 1981-2010 TS#
Standard deviation
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(a) SST average (2000-2010)
(b) SST anomaly (TS inactive)
圖 5.2 6-8 月海表面(a)2000-2010 年平均溫度(℃)分佈圖,(b)不活躍年海表面溫度距平圖。
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(a) NCEP 850hPa vorticity (TS inactive) (e) NCEP 850hPa vorticity anomaly (TS inactive)
(b) NWP 850hPa vorticity (TS inactive) (f) NWP 850hPa vorticity anomaly (TS inactive)
(c) NP 850hPa vorticity (TS inactive) (g) NP 850hPa vorticity anomaly (TS inactive)
(d) IOP 850hPa vorticity (TS inactive) (h) IOP 850hPa vorticity anomaly (TS inactive)
圖 5.3 不活躍年 7-9 月(a) NCEP、(b) NWP、(c) NP 及(d) IOP 實驗之 850hPa 風場(ms-1)與渦度場(10-5s-1) 平均及(e) NCEP、(f) NWP、(g) NP 及(h) IOP 實驗之 850hPa 風場(ms-1)與渦度場(10-5s-1)距平值。
(a)-(d)中黑色標記為颱風生成點,框格內數字為不活躍年平均每年颱風數量。(e)-(h)框格內 數字為不活躍年平均每年颱風減少數量。
15.0
11.5 27.0
22.5
-4.1
-3.4 -2.9
-6.7
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(a) NCEP 400hPa Omega (TS inactive) (e) NCEP 400hPa Omega anomaly (TS inactive)
(b) NWP 400hPa Omega (TS inactive) (f) NWP 400hPa Omega anomaly (TS inactive)
(c) NP 400hPa Omega (TS inactive) (g) NP 400hPa Omega anomaly (TS inactive)
(d) IOP 400hPa Omega (TS inactive) (h) IOP 400hPa Omega anomaly (TS inactive)
圖 5.4 不活躍年 7-9 月(a) NCEP、(b) NWP、(c) NP 及(d) IOP 實驗之 400hPa 垂直速度(ω)平均場 (10-2Pas-1)及(e) NCEP、(f) NWP、(g) NP 及(h) IOP 實驗之 400hPa 垂直速度(ω)場(10-2Pas-1)距 平值。
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(a) NCEP 700hPa RH (TS inactive) (e ) NCEP 700hPa RH anomaly (TS inactive)
(b) NWP 700hPa RH (TS inactive) (f ) NWP 700hPa RH anomaly (TS inactive)
(c) NP 700hPa RH (TS inactive) (g) NP 700hPa RH anomaly (TS inactive)
(d) IOP 700hPa RH (TS inactive) (h) IOP 700hPa RH anomaly (TS inactive)
圖 5.5 不活躍年 7-9 月(a) NCEP、(b) NWP、(c) NP 及(d) IOP 實驗之 700hPa 相對溼度平均場(%)及 (e) NCEP、(f) NWP、(g) NP 及(h) IOP 實驗之 700hPa 相對溼度場(%)距平值。
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(a) NCEP 850hPa vorticity (2010)
(b) IOwarm 850hPa vorticity (ensemble mean)
(c) IOwarm+2 850hPa vorticity (ensemble mean)
圖 5.6 (a) NCEP 2010 年、(b) IOwarm及(c) IOwarm+2模擬實驗中 7-9 月 850hPa 的風場(ms-1)與渦度場 (10-5s-1)系集平均。
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(a) IOwarm 850hPa vorticity (ensemble anomaly)
(b) IOwarm+2 850hPa vorticity (ensemble anomaly)
圖 5.7 (a) IOwarm與(b) IOwarm+2模擬實驗 7-9 月 850hPa 的風場(ms-1)與渦度場(10-5s-1)系集距平圖。
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(a) IOwarm air temperature (ensemble anomaly)
(b) IOwarm+2 air temperature (ensemble anomaly)
圖 5.8 (a) IOwarm與(b) IOwarm+2模擬實驗 7-9 月 88°E 的經向垂直氣溫(℃)剖面系集距平圖。
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(a) IOwarm Omega (ensemble anomaly) (d) IOwarm+2 Omega (ensemble anomaly)
(b) IOwarm 700hPa RH (ensemble anomaly) (e) IOwarm+2 700hPa RH (ensemble anomaly)
(c) IOwarm vertical wind shear (ensemble mean) (f) IOwarm+2 vertical wind shear (ensemble mean)
圖 5.9 IOwarm模擬中 7-9 月(a) 400hPa 垂直速度(10-2Pas-1)、(b) 700hPa 相對溼度(%)系集距平值及 (c) 200-850hPa 垂直風切大小(ms-1)之系集平均值,(d)-(f)與(a)-(c)相同但為 IOwarm+2模擬資料。
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(a) IOwarm Latent heat flux (ensemble anomaly) (b) IOwarm+2 Latent heat flux (ensemble anomaly)
圖 5.10 (a) IOwarm模擬與(b) IOwarm+2模擬中 7-9 月表層潛熱通量(Wm-2)(陰影)與低層風速大小(ms-1)(等 值線)之系集距平圖。