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附錄 A、新葛羅夫線上音樂辭典(2007)有關音樂專有名詞之定義
http://www.grovemusic.com/index.html z 調性key
In tonal music (see TONALITY), the abstract arrangement of musical phenomena such as melodies, harmonies and cadences around a referential or tonic pitch class. While the French ton and the German Tonart stress the importance of the tonic, the English term has a broader meaning: as a metaphorical ‘key’, the tonic ‘unlocks’ or clarifies the arrangement of pitch relations that underlies the music. A tonic thus unifies and coordinates the musical phenomena within its reach: in the key of C major, for example, there is an essential ‘C-ness’
to the music.
The idea that a piece or a passage lies ‘in’ a given key may reflect a cultural inclination to conceptualize key as a musical container. A key in this sense involves certain melodic tendencies and harmonic relations that maintain the tonic as the centre of attention; the tonic controls melodic contours in both smaller and larger musical contexts, determines the immediate succession of harmonies, and coordinates the overall succession of medial cadences and modulations in a piece.
Also crucial to the concept of key is the idea that there are two basic modal genera, major and minor, each with different musical characteristics arising largely from the disposition of tones and semitones within thier respective scales. Since each tonic governs both a major and a minor mode, there are (given equal temperament and enharmonic equivalence) a total of 24 keys, two for each of the 12 semitones within the chromatic octave.
All 24 possibilities were first arranged in a CIRCLE OF FIFTHS in Heinichen's Der General-Bass (Dresden, 1728; see illustration), though Heinichen’s circle had been anticipated by NIKOLAY DILETSKY. Each pair of major and minor modes has the same diatonic collection and key signature, while the collections of adjacent, 5th-related pairs differ by a one sharp or flat. As a model for harmonic succesesion, however, the circle is imperfect, for there are a number of crucial harmonic relations in tonal music that do not conform to this arrangement. Moreover, other representations of the total aggregate were common. In the first volume of Das wohltemperierte Clavier (1722), Bach wrote a separate prelude and fugue for each major and minor mode, which he arranged in ascending semitones within the chromatic octave.
The modes are further interrelated as follows: the ‘parallel’ major and minor (e.g. C major and C minor) share the same tonic but have different diatonic collections, while the
‘relative’ major and minor (C major and A minor) share the same diatonic collection but have different tonics. Within a given diatonic collection, all pitch classes (and the harmonies
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rooted in them) are subdominant to the tonic, some more so than others. Moreover, a key is not limited to the pitch classes within its particular diatonic collection. In certain circumstances (melodic chromaticism, mixture, tonicization, modulation), the music can use pitch classes from outside its tonic major or minor scale without weakening its sense of orientation towards the tonic.
Keys are often said to possess characteristics associated with various extra-musical emotional states. While there has never been a consensus on these associations, the material basis for these attributions was at one time quite real: because of inequalities in actual temperament, each mode acquired a unique intonation and thus its own distinctive ‘tone’, and the sense that each mode had its own musical characteristics was strong enough to persist even in circumstances in which equal temperament was abstractly assumed. Though highly specific with respect to different repertories and listeners, these expressive qualities fall into two basic categories, which conform to the basic difference – often asserted as an opposition – between major and minor: major is heard to be brighter and more cheerful than minor, which in comparison is darker and sadder.
By BRIAN HYER z 速度tempo
Literally, the ‘time’ of a musical composition, but more commonly used to describe musical speed or pacing. Tempo may be indicated in a variety of ways. Most familiar are metronomic designations that link a particular durational unit (usually the beat unit of the notated metre) with a particular duration in clock time (e.g. crotchet = 80 beats/minute). Also familiar are conventionalized descriptions of speed and gestural character – andante, allegro, langsam etc; (see TEMPO AND EXPRESSION MARKS). There are also looser associations between metric notations and tempo, a vestige of earlier mensural practice, where, for example, 3/2 is sign of relatively slow tempo, 3/4 of moderate tempo and 3/8 of relatively quick tempo.
Similarly, we retain a sense of the distinction between the half-circle (common time) and the crossed half-circle (alla breve), with the latter theoretically twice as fast (see ALLA BREVE, NOTATION,§III,3–6, and PROPORTIONAL NOTATION).
While tempo necessarily involves a determination of the appropriate durations for the various rhythmic units given in score, there is more to tempo than simply indexing crotchets and quavers to some amount of clock time. Epstein observed that ‘tempo is a consequence of the sum of all factors within a piece – the overall sense of a work’s themes, rhythms, articulations, “breathing”, motion, harmonic progressions, tonal movement, contrapuntal activity. … Tempo … is a reduction of this complex Gestalt into the element of speed per se, a speed that allows the overall, integrated bundle of musical elements to flow with a rightful sense’ (Shaping Time: Music, the Brain, and Performance, New York, 1995, p.99). A true sense of tempo, then, is a product of more than the successive note-to-note articulations; it involves the perception of motion within rhythmic groups and across entire phrases. Finding
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the ‘right’ tempo within and between sections of a piece is one of the subtlest and most difficult tasks facing the performer.
Changes in surface durations do not necessarily give rise to a change of tempo, as the augmentation or diminution of durational values may have little effect on the rate of the perceived pulse. Bona fide tempo changes may of course occur, either abruptly or gradually (via accelerando or ritardando) over the course of a composition, often rather dramatically.
But it is worth noting that even within passages that seem to be in stable tempo, the beat rate is not mechanically constant, save in performances that involve electronic or mechanical means of articulating beats and rhythms. Rather, in normal performances tempo systematically fluctuates within the bar and the phrase.
Tempo is intertwined with our sense of pulse and metre, for without a regular series of pulses it is difficult to imagine any sense of tempo whatsoever. In a metric context, our sense of tempo is what allows us to distinguish subdivisions from beats and beats from downbeats (see RHYTHM, §1, 4). The entire metric hierarchy, from the shortest subdivisions to the broadest levels of hypermetre, plays a pivotal role in establishing the ‘complex Gestalt’ of tempo.
JUSTIN LONDON z 力度Dynamics
The Capirola Codex of 1517 (fol.49v) contains the singular direction ‘tocca pian piano’.
The performance indications piano and forte are occasionally found in music composed around 1600, to indicate both echo effects (as in Bonelli's Primo libro delle vilanelle) and alternation between choirs (as in Giovanni Gabrieli's Sonata pian e forte). In Banchieri's madrigal comedy Pazzia senile the notated dynamics distinguish the characters from each other, and in the same composer's Barca di Venetia per Padova street criers and drinkers sing forte while the melodies of the fishermen are piano. In 17th-century notation, piano and Echo are often used synonymously. In genuine echo compositions it was usually sufficient to replace dynamic marks by appropriate headings; when solo voices or the chorus were to perform an echo effect, it was indicated by the words in Ecco or piano, or even more frequently by proposta – riposta.
Messe di voce (Domenico Mazzocchi used the sign C for the effect of increasing and decreasing sound) and diminuendos on long single notes were part of vocal and instrumental performing practice from the early 17th century. Caccini's principles of ‘muovere de l'affetto’
and ‘cantare con affetto’ would hardly have been conceivable without purposeful dynamics;
those principles were adopted first by Monteverdi, Fantini and Castello, and later by Thomas Mace. In the foreword to Le nuove musice (1601–2, p.63), Caccini described the esclamazione, which may already have been in use for decades, as ‘really nothing but allowing some reinforcement of the voice.’ In contrast to the messa di voce, the esclamazione involved letting the volume die down and immediately increase again. The dynamics
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developed in Italy in connection with affects and echoes stimulated German, French and English music and its notation. Italian dynamic markings were used throughout Europe, often alongside terminology from other languages. The notation of crescendos and decrescendos was particularly refined. Sometimes a crescendo was indicated by a graduated series of dynamic levels (e.g. p … f … ff), sometimes by phrases such as ‘lowder by degrees’ (Locke, The Tempest, 1675) or ‘un peu plus forte et toujours en augmentant jusqu'à la fin’ (Marais, Sonnaite à la mariesienne, 1723).
In the 18th century composers resorted to filled-in forks, equilateral triangles and needles to express constant changes of volume, for instance in violin sonatas by G.A. Piani (1712), Geminiani (1739) and Veracini (1744), and in Rameau's Hippolyte et Araicie (1733).
Rameau and Geminiani indicated crescendos and decrescendos with wedges; Geminiani also used the direction rinforzando in the sense of a crescendo. The first edition of Leopold Mozart's Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule (1756, pp.50–51) contains the following paraphrases: ‘Piano … means quiet; forte … loud or strong. Mezzo … means half and is used to moderate the forte and piano. Piu … means more. Crescendo … growing. Decrescendo … on the other hand, indicates that the strength of the note is to diminish more and more’.
Haydn used the markings pp, piu p, p, mezzo forte, poco f, f, f assai, ff, mezza voce, sotto voce, cresc., decresc., dim. and mancando. W.A. Mozart added mfp, sfz, sfp and callando to this stock of terms. Beethoven also used ppp (op.18), meno p, sempre p e dolce, piu f, sempre piu f, fff, fp, morendo, smorzando and perdendosi; in his scores such expressions as dolce, espressivo, cantabile and con espressione almost always indicate that the part thus described is the main one or its counterpart, not just a subordinate part.
In the course of the 19th century composers felt obliged to provide more and more performance indications; this led to proliferation of extreme values purportedly reflecting the composers' intentions. Berlioz was probably the first to resort to ffff, surpassing the fff found now and then in Weber and Beethoven. Carl Gollmick urged composers to treat pp and ff as superlatives, and to use ppp and fff only with reluctance (Critische Terminologie für Musiker und Musikfreunde, 1833). However, later composers ignored his plea for moderation. Verdi's Messa da Requiem contains the first ppppp, and Tchaikovsky's ‘Pathétique’ Symphony the first pppppp. The last movement of Skryabin's First Piano Sonata contains the marking Quasi niente, pppp, and his later directions range from velouté (‘velvety’) to éclatant (‘piercing’).
Schoenberg, in the fifth of the Kleine Klavierstücke op.19, added the phrase zart, aber voll (‘tender but full’) to a p. Mahler, Schreker, Berg, Draeseke, Puccini, Distler, Richard Strauss and Koechlin also used dynamic markings of above-average precision.
From the second half of the 19th century dynamic markings in scores by progressive composers are vertically differentiated. For instance, in Liszt's Tasso: lamento e trionfo, the adagio mesto section has four simultaneous markings: pp for the horn, ff for the harp, f espressivo for three solo cellos and bass clarinet, and p for the rest of the cellos and double
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basses. Debussy's performance indications such as en dehors, très en dehors and soutenu provide clarity over and beyond the hierarchy of the parts. In the later 19th century directions such as hervortretend and marki(e)rt were used by Draeseke, Wagner, Bruckner and others;
the composers of the Second Viennese School began marking the main part (Hauptstimme) with ‘H’ and subordinate parts (Nebenstimmen) with ‘N’. Schoenberg, whose op.19 prescribes vertically differentiated dynamics in several passages, required composers ‘to show, in one's markings, whether the total loudness is meant or the instrument's own degree of loudness’, the dynamic marking is therefore either related to the total sound of the work as composed, or subjectively absolute, not fitting into that sound ‘from the point of view of the instrument’ (Style and Idea, 2/1984, p.341).
Dynamic signs and terms can be taken as identical only within the works of individual composers, or at the most for historically limited periods. Even within a composer's personal style one must take account of diachronic developments; for instance, fortissimo denoting breadth of aspiration and conflict does not occur until Beethoven's middle period.
‘Fortissimo does not always mean “as strong as possible” but can mean very strong, stronger than forte; like every term denoting strength, it comprises many degrees within itself ’ (A.B. Marx, Anleitung zum Vortrag Beethovenscher Klavierwerke, 1863, p.98). Marx took the ff in Beethoven's early works to be milder than the same marking in later works such as opp.57 and 106. The same observation applies to Schubert; the comparatively small expansion of a short piece such as one of his Ländler is hardly ever appropriate to the kind of large-scale fortissimo that has its place in sonata movements of larger dimensions.
In Le marteau sans maître, Boulez's instructions ‘sans équilibre’, as against ‘sonorités très équilibrées entre elles’ and ‘Les nuances seront exécutées “ponctuellement”’ (see §1 above), can be realized by a corresponding distribution of intensity. Notwithstanding the efforts of Schoenberg, Berg, Debussy, Stravinsky, Penderecki, Ligeti and Feldman, however, dynamics and the mingling of tonal colours, at least in the traditional instrumental make-up of an ensemble, are still not regarded as satisfactorily capable of notation. Moreover, the differences between, for instance, a piano played by only a few instruments and one played by a larger ensemble may be perceived, but no terms to describe them have been coined.