Chapter 1 Introduction
2.3 Linguistic Aspect
2.3.1 Metadiscourse
2.3.1.2 Boosters
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(Fuertes-Olivera et al., 2001). In order to find out the functions of netadiscourse, some linguistic devices, hedgers and boosters in particular, are examined in this study.
2.3.1.1 Hedgers
Hyland (2005) defines hedgers as a linguistic device to indicate the writer’s decision to present propositional information tentatively, so it withholds complete commitment to a proposition. Hedgers (such as might, probably and seem) not only signal a tentative assessment of referential information, but also serve as markers of interpersonal metadiscourse. The functions of them are to tone down the force of the
messages, to introduce some degree of uncertainty, and to assure the hearers that the speakers do not intend to interfere with the hearers’ freedom to act (Fuertes-Olivera et
al., 2001). In other words, through the use of hedgers, speakers can avoid imposition on their interlocutors. With similar thought, hedgers may help the speakers avoid or alleviate the force of their disagreement with the hearers.
2.3.1.2 Boosters
Boosters are another category of markers of interpersonal metadiscourse. As Hyland (1998: 368) suggests, “Boosters are then rhetorical, persuasive strategies which function to mark, or rhetorically manipulate, consensual understandings based on shared community membership.” Holmes (1982) uses boosters to refer to lexical items that the writer uses to create an impression of certainty and assurance for a
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statement. They strengthen the utterance’s illocutionary force. Boosters, like clearly,
obviously and of course, allow writers to express conviction, to show their confidence
in the truth of a particular proposition, and to mark their involvement and solidarity with their audiences (Hyland, 1998). In other words, boosters offer writers a medium to engage with their readers to create interpersonal solidarity. In advertising, boosters are used as persuasion devices. Although the consumer may not believe the content of an advertisement, they still rely on it to make decision to purchase the products advertised. In other words, the consumer is trapped in between. Therefore, boosters, by giving strength and conviction to the consumer, can persuade the consumer, and lead them to make up their mind to buy the product.
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Chapter 3 Methodology
Based on the theories Chapter Two reviews, this chapter introduces research design, which includes data sources and quantity, criteria for analyses, essential functions, and measurements.
3.1 Data Collection
3.1.1 Data from magazines
The data to be used in the thesis are from two women’s fashion magazines, namely, Beauty and Elle, the world’s best-selling fashion magazines, from January to December in 2011, focusing on fashion, beauty, health, and entertainment. The potential readers of these two magazines are aged from 18 to 35.
In total, 200 pieces of advertisements were collected. These data are equally distributed to two types of beauty products: cosmetic products and skin-care products.
3.1.2 Data from interviews
The data from the interview are qualitative analyses, and the gap between the advertiser and the consumer is to be examined. Since it is impossible for the interviewees to evaluate all of the 200 pieces of advertisements, only four of them were used to test on the subjects’ reaction on certain data which include felicity
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conditions, Cooperative Principle, and Politeness Principle adopted in these advertisements. Among these four pieces of advertisements, two are cosmetic ads, and the other two are skin-care ads.
For qualitative analyses in this thesis, twelve women, as potential consumers, were interviewed. All of those subjects use cosmetic products and skin-care products, and they are equally distributed to two age groups (with the older age group ranging from 35 to 45 years old, and the younger group ranging from 20 to 30 years old), and two education levels (with the higher education group consisting of those who have received or are taking formal schooling of college education, and the lower education group containing those who did not receive college education).
The subjects were asked to rate the strength of the persuasiveness of each element contained in the four selected advertisements (as given below) on a 5-point Likert scale, with point-5 being strongly persuasive and point-1 being strongly unpersuasive. The whole procedure of each interview lasted for about 20 minutes.
The four selected advertisements are as follows:
a. 從早到晚，不泛油光不黯沉！讓底妝更加持久的救星！(蜜粉餅) b. 2011 春迷，加勒比海春妝，浪漫呈現 (眼影)
c. 全效亮眼按摩精華，消除疲憊浮腫雙眼，溫和不刺激的清涼對策 (眼部精華) d. 清新的薄荷&茶種香氣與舒爽的使用感，愉悅身心 (乳液)
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3.2 Criteria for Analyses
In quantitative analyses as well as in qualitative analyses, the data were analyzed according to the ways of persuasion, the felicity conditions, the maxims of Cooperative Principle, and the maxims of Politeness Principle adopted in the data.
3.2.1 Ways to persuade
Two ways of persuasion—hard-sell approach and soft-sell approach—the former makes a direct appeal to the customer to purchase the product and the characteristics of the product, and the latter resorts to emotions and the closeness between the advertiser and the consumer. It was predicted that the two different kinds of beauty products—cosmetics and skin-care products—have different preferences to the two appeals of persuasion. Examples (1) and (2) are illustrations for the two ways of persuasion.
(1) 研究證實淡斑效果高達 94%，使肌膚如白瓷般淨透亮白 (2) 2011 春迷，加勒比海春妝，浪漫呈現
Example (1) is hard-sell approach, while example (2) is soft-sell approach. In example (1), the advertisement describes the physical effects of using the products. In example (2), the advertisement appeals to the psychological and emotional reactions after the consumer uses the product.
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3.2.2 Felicity Conditions (FC)
Persuasion, as a speech act, must satisfy the felicity conditions for it to be constituted. These felicity conditions include propositional content condition, preparatory condition, sincerity condition and essential condition. In implementing the felicity conditions, the advertisement may not always obey the four felicity conditions; instead, more than often they violate the conditions in order to create perlocutionary effects on the potential consumer, to attract their attention and interest, and then buy the merchandise advertised. For these reasons, it is necessary to examine how the four felicity conditions are manipulated in advertisements. Four examples are given as follows1.
(3) 清透如紗的水感礦物粉底液，溫柔、滑順包覆著肌膚
(4) 不論你是彩妝新手或是玩妝高手，只要NARS 晶采全效凝膠一罐在手，就 能輕鬆畫出多種明星般的耀眼妝容
(5) 倩碧首席皮膚專家相信，香料和陽光傷害會刺激皮膚，我們堅持 100%不含香料
(6) 這樣煥發透亮感的上質光潤肌，SKII 可以給妳
All of the above examples contain propositional contents. Example (4) presents
the preparatory condition because it shows the advertiser’s ability to satisfy the consumer’s need. Example (5) displays the advertiser’s sincerity to do what is good
1 The four examples all satisfy the four felicity conditions. However, in order to give more transparent explanations, each example illustrates only one felicity condition.
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for the consumer. Finally, example (6) demonstrates the essential condition because it shows that the advertiser will do what she promises to do.
3.2.3 Cooperative Principle (CP)
In this study, the four maxims of Grice’s CP (including Quality Maxim, Quantity Maxim, Relevancy Maxim, and Manner Maxim) were used to explain how a successful persuasion is conducted. For advertising to be a successful communication, the advertiser and the potential consumer must cooperate with each other. The advertiser, in order to induce certain effects on the consumer to persuade her to buy the beauty products, may either obey or violate the maxims of CP. The following examples illustrate how maxims of CP are manipulated.
(7) 從早到晚，不泛油光不黯沉！讓底妝更加持久的救星！
(8) 逆轉時光，重返年輕
(9) 24 小時 DNA 美白，打造 360°鑽石透白肌 (10) 2011 春迷，加勒比海春妝，浪漫呈現
Example (7) obeys Quality Maxim because “不泛油光不黯沉” is what the advertiser believes to be true. Besides, example (7) also obey Relevancy Maxim and Manner Maxim: the word “底妝” is exactly about the cosmetics, and the description of its function is brief and clear.
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On the other hand, in example (7), “救星” (“saver”) violates Quantity Maxim because this is not the information required. Example (8) to (10) are examples for violating the maxims. In example (8), both “ 逆轉時光 ” and “重 返年 輕 ” are
impossible and fail to be true, which violates Quality Maxim. In example (9), “DNA”
and “鑽石” are not related to cosmetics or skin conditions at all, so they violate
Relevancy Maxim. In example (10), Manner Maxim is violated because “春迷，加勒比 海春妝” is ambiguous and not clear enough for the consumer to understand.
When both the advertiser’s and the consumer’s points of view are taken into consideration, sometimes, there is a gap between them, as examples (11) and (12) show.
(11) 極透、無瑕，不間斷雙重美白保養
(12) 不論你是彩妝新手或是玩妝高手，只要 NARS 晶采全效凝膠一罐 在手，就能輕鬆畫出多種明星般的耀眼妝容
From the advertiser’s point of view, examples (11) and (12) obey all the four maxims, namely Quality Maxim, Quantity Maxim, Relevancy Maxim, and Manner Maxim.
However, from the consumer’s point of view, it is not necessarily true because “極透”,
“無瑕”, “不間斷”, “只要…一罐”, “輕鬆畫出”and “明星般” are all exaggerative and
are uneasy to achieve simply by using the product advertised; thus, the consumer may not completely believe what the advertisement says. That is, the advertisement may not
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be persuasive enough for the consumer.
3.2.4 Politeness Principle (PP)
Leech’s (1983) PP offers some explanations to how the maxims of PP are
manipulated. However, in advertisements, not all of the six maxims (namely, Tact Maxim, Generosity Maxim, Approbation Maxim, Modesty Maxim, Agreement Maxim, and Sympathy Maxim) are equally frequently adopted. Also, it was presumed that Tact Maxim and Approbation Maxim, which are hearer-oriented, are used more frequently than the others because in logical thinking, the advertiser has to and would want to show the potential consumer that the target merchandise is beneficial to the potential consumer. After all, nobody would want to buy anything that is useless or not very useful. Moreover, related examples are presented as follows.
(13) 我看見肌膚的改變，變得淨白、透亮、無瑕
(14) 只要 NARS 晶采全效凝膠一罐在手，就能輕鬆畫出多種明星般的 耀眼妝容
(15) 讓肌膚如輕覆薄紗，有效改善肌膚黯沉，妝容明亮耀眼 (16) 極持色，極炫色，驚灔感官，一抹鮮明如妳
(17) 以頂級珍貴修護成分，實現渴望的年輕
Example (13), through obeying Tact Maxim, points out what benefits the potential consumer can have after using the commodity. In example (14), “只要一 罐”describes the low cost to the potential consumer. Example (15) violates
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Approbation Maxim because it points out the consumer’s skin problem, which is
undesirable, although factual, to the potential consumer. Example (16) violates Modesty Maxim, for the advertiser highly praises her own product as something extremely functional and effective. Example (17) observes Sympathy Maxim because the advertiser hopes the consumer to be beautiful as the potential consumer does.
Example (13) also observe Sympathy Maxim because the use of pronoun “我” is a shifting of “你”, which means the advertiser takes the consumer’s side and show sympathy.
3.2.5 Ideology
In women’s fashion magazines, gender ideology is prominent and vitally
important. Through it, women are told how they should behave. Basically the components of a woman ideology include physical appearance, psychological status, and social recognition. Physical appearance means the skin condition, and psychological status indicates emotions. Social recognition refers to role, uniqueness, identity, and beauty. According to Plakoyiannaki and Zotos (2009), women have been given decorative roles, for example, as sex objects, emphasizing physical attractiveness only. In this thesis, stereotypical impressions of women embedded in the advertisements are examined to see whether such traditional value system still functions in the modern society of Taiwan. Six examples are given below to illustrate
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the point.
(18) 全面守護白、淨、水嫩肌膚
(19) 讓肌膚沉浸於豐富的滋養中，舒緩於愜意的氛圍裡
(20) 精算過的 4 種不同質感蜜粉餅，能調理膚色，呈現洗練的妝感 (21) 超模訂製，量身打造雙眸奢華秀服
(22) 令人過目難忘的重量級眼妝，覺醒你的超模體質 (23) 極透、無瑕，不間斷雙重美白保養
Example (18) is about the physical appearance of ideology, reminding the potential consumer that she should always keep white, clear, and soft skin. Example (19) is related to the psychological status of woman ideology which prescribes that women should always look for comfort and relaxation. Examples (20) to (23) regard the social recognition of ideology, role, uniqueness, identity, and beauty, respectively.
In example (20), “洗練” indicates a certain role as “a competent career woman.” In example (21), “量身打造” means “design for you in particular,” which is uniqueness.
In example (22), “超模” is a kind of identity for women to identify with. In example (23), “美白” points out the aesthetic which women should have and care about.
3.2.6 Linguistic Devices 3.2.6.1 Referential contents
There are four aspects of the referential contents in verbal representations of advertisements of beauty products—time, singularity, annexation, and scope. First, the time aspect includes instancy (such as 瞬間/一瞬，轉眼間，下一秒，立即),
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duration (such as 日夜不間斷，全天(候) ，一整天，24 小時), and simultaneity (同 時，同步), all of which aim at the efficiency and effectiveness of the beauty products
advertised. Next, singularity is concerned with first appearance of the referent (such as 首度，第一次，第一(款) ，史上第一瓶) and exclusiveness (such as 獨家，獨特), both emphasizing the uniqueness of the product. As for of annexation, it refers to the addition of information (such as 再，更，又，也，不僅，不只), indicating that the product advertised is multifunctional, i.e. of greater value than the potential consumer can imagine. Lastly, The scope aspect aims to intensify the width (such as 全面，全方 位，任何，所有，幾乎，每個) and the depth (such as 徹底，透徹，極，超) of the
functions of the products advertised.
3.2.6.2 Hedgers vs. boosters
Hedgers and boosters are linguistic devices used in interpersonal metadiscourse.
Hedgers function to tone down the negative force of a message and to assure the consumer that the advertiser does not intend to interfere with their freedom to act.
Opposite to hedgers, boosters are used to express the speaker’s conviction, to show confidence in the proposition, and to mark the solidarity with the hearer. In advertising, boosters are widely used to persuade the consumer. Since the consumer relies heavily on the information offered in the advertisement to decide whether to buy the product or not, boosters, powerful expressions which can help to persuade the
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consumer that the product is valuable and worth buying, may effectively urge the consumer to make decisions.
Hedgers serve to offer suggestions for problems, while boosters give expressions with exaggerated contents. In this study, it is wondered whether these two linguistic devices are used differently in the two types of beauty product advertisements. Two examples are provided as given below.
(24) 不論你是彩妝新手或是玩妝高手，只要 NARS 晶采全效凝膠一 罐在手，就能輕鬆畫出多種明星般的耀眼妝容
(25) 極透、無瑕，不間斷 雙重 美白保養
In Example (24), “彩妝新手” and “只要” both tone down the utterance. “彩妝 新手” means “the novice of using cosmetics”, and “只要” indicates “if only.” Both of
them do not emphasize or exaggerate something, so they are hedgers. “多種明星般”
and “耀眼” are boosters used to exaggerate the effect of the product. In example (25), five boosters are used to enhance the functions and effect of the product. By using the boosters, the advertiser sounds certain and confident of the product advertised.
3.2.7 Essential functions
To identify whether the advertisements obey the maxims of FC, CP, and PP, the essential functions of the beauty products in the data collected are defined to set a norm for judgment. More specifically, if the advertisement serves the essential
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functions and does not offer any functions other than the essential functions, it is counted as obeying the maxims; otherwise, it is counted as violating2 the maxims.
The essential functions of these beauty products of which the advertisements are examined in this thesis are given below. Cosmetics include foundation, powder, BB cream, sunscreen, mascara, eye shadow, and lipstick; skin-care products include various essence, lotion, and cream.
1. Essential functions of cosmetics:
(1) Face (foundation, powder, and BB cream): adorning skin colors and covering skin flaws
(2) Eyes (mascara and eye shadow): making the eyelashes darker, longer, and thicker; giving colors to eye areas
(3) Lips (lipstick): giving colors to lips, making lips softer and plumper 2. Essential functions of skin-care products:
(1) Essence: supplying water to skin and making it more moisturized (2) Lotion: making skin whiter, smoother, and helping block moisture (3) Cream: giving skin nourishment and hydrating it
2 Grice (1975) thinks there are four different situations about the violation of principles, namely violating, opting out, clash, and flouting. In this thesis, they are all included in the term “violating.”
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3.3 Measurements
All the data used in the thesis are categorized by the criteria mentioned above first. Then, the frequencies and percentages of each category and subcategory are calculated in quantitative analyses; in qualitative analyses, 5-point Likert scale is adopted. Afterwards, major patterns are described and explained.
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Chapter 4
Quantitative Analyses of the Written Data
This chapter presents quantitative analyses of data about ways to persuade,
This chapter presents quantitative analyses of data about ways to persuade,