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CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this chapter, we will present and discuss the findings derived from the data analysis. First, we would show quantitative findings on the six major theme types featured in the three levels of narratives. Following the discussion on the occurrences of each theme type, we would illustrate theme establishment in the students’ narratives by presenting a typical paragraph from the HI, the MID, and the LOW group.
Theme Types in the Students’ Narratives
As indicated in the beginning of this chapter, we will first present findings on the occurrences of theme types in the students’ narratives. We believe the discussion will provide possible answers to our first research question: What are the theme types most frequently found in the high-rated, middle-rated and low- rated narratives composed by Taiwanese senior high school students?
Frequencies of Theme Types
Statistical analysis reveals that there are a total of 360 sentences produced by the student writers. Nevertheless, the amount of production between the different groups is not equal. The statistics shows a trend of degradation in terms of sentence output from the high-rated group to the low-rated one. In total, the HI group produces 147 sentences, which outnumber the MID’s 113 sentences and the LOW’s 100 sentences. On average, each HI essay consists of 14.7 sentences while the MID’s average is 11.3, and the LOW’s average is 10.
In the students’ texts, we identify 6 major theme types, which include the noun phrase (NP), prepositional phrase + NP, adverbial group + NP, conjunction + NP,
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adverbial clause + NP, and non-finite clause + NP. As stated in the literature review, theme may exist in various environments involving the unmarked or the marked structure.
In the initial presentation, we only label the first elements in the theme. Full coverage of the entire theme configuration will ensue in the next section. Table 4.1 records the occurrences and distribution of theme types in the three groups of student essays.
Table 4.1 Occurrences and distribution of theme types.
Note. NP = noun phrase; PP = prepositional phrase; Adv = adverb; Conj = conjunction;
Adv C = adverbial clause; Non-fi C = non-finite clause.
* = significant frequency.
In terms of the general performance of all the students, the data from table 4.1 shows that NP theme occurs most frequently, taking up the highest percentage of 56.1%
of all the theme types. Since NP theme is largely realized by the subject noun phrase, the result confirms that the unmarked theme is the most favored by our students when they compose a narrative. Moreover, since narrative usually involves the introduction of one or more characters into a sequence of events, we may assume that genre constraint has directed the students’ decision to place the participants in the initial position. On the other hand, Non-fi C + NP is the least employed theme with a low frequency of 1.1%
while the occurrence of Conj + NP (4.7%) is also rare in our data. The findings indicate that our students may be less acquainted or less confident with these marked structures.
As for the other marked themes, Adv + NP (16.9%) has the highest percentage, which is Frequency
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followed by PP + NP (11.4%) and Adv C + NP (9.7%). The primary finding suggests that the students’ narratives exhibit a variety of theme types and that their distributions in the three levels of writing are alike. However, in detailed analysis, we also find group differences in terms of degree of preference for different theme types.
On NP theme, although all three groups of students show a strong preference of use, the HI employs the highest percentage of NP theme (61.2%), which not only surpasses the percentage produced by the MID (49.6%) or the LOW group (56%) but far exceeds the HI’s own application of the other theme types. The result suggests that the
unmarked theme is the predominant theme type that the HI group relies on for the
establishment of theme. By contrast, the marked structure Adv C + NP (7.5%) is not as favored by the HI group. In fact, its occurrence in the HI essays is much lower than that in the MID (11.5%) or the LOW (11%) group. With regard to the MID group, the statistics shows a preference for PP + NP theme (15%), which indicates that the MID students favor the structure and use it often to add texture to their essays. As for the LOW group, we observe major discrepancies on the group’s use of PP + NP theme (7%) and Conj + NP theme (9%) in comparison with the other two groups. The low
frequency of PP + NP theme by the LOW group suggests that these students may lack competence in applying such a structure as theme in their compositions. On the other hand, the relatively higher percentage of Conj + NP theme may give evidence that the LOW students rely heavily on such a theme type to connect the sentences.
To sum up, the results from the statistics reveal that Taiwanese senior high school students employ a variety of themes in their narratives. The students adopt mostly NP theme (56.1%) in their essays which is followed by Adv + NP (16.9%), PP+ NP (11.4%), and Adv C + NP (9.7%). The finding also shows group differences in terms of theme use. In general, the initial analysis has provided valuable data for us to further testify our assumption of theme and its operation in the students’ texts.
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The Establishment of Theme in the Students’ Narratives
In this section, we will illustrate the establishment of theme in the students’
narratives by performing a qualitative analysis on the 6 major theme types identified in the previous section. We will first present our finding on the categories of each major theme type employed by our students. Then we will discuss how the students exploit the theme structure by analyzing typical paragraphs from the HI, the MID, and the LOW groups. This section is intended to answer our second research question: How do theme types contribute to the quality of writing in the high-rated, middle-rated and low- rated narratives composed by Taiwanese senior high school students?
Categories of NP Theme
In the previous section, we conclude that the students employ a high percentage of NP theme (56.1%). However, we do not yet know the content or the development of such a theme type in the student texts. To gain a complete picture, we further classify NP theme into 4 categories, which include Proper N, Com-N, Pron, and Others theme.
The finding is shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Occurrences and distribution of NP theme.
Note. Proper N= proper noun; Com-N= common noun; Pron= pronoun;
Others = marked structures such as wh-cleft, anticipatory it, existential there.
As shown, over half of all thematic positions in the student texts are held by Pron (55.9%).
Together with Com-N (25.2%), these two theme types consist of roughly 80% of overall
Frequency HI MID LOW Total
Theme types Percent Freq Percent Freq Percent Freq Percent Freq
Proper N 17.8%* 16 7.1% 4 5.4% 3 11.4% 23
Com-N 23.3% 21 30.4%* 17 23.2% 13 25.2% 51
Pron 53.3%* 48 55.4%* 31 60.7%* 34 55.9% 113
Others 5.6% 5 7.1% 4 10.7% 6 7.4% 15
Total 100.0% 90 100.0% 56 100.0% 56 100.0% 202
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NP themes. In contrast, the frequency of Proper N theme (11.4%) is considerably lower than the prior two categories. The least occurrence falls on Others theme which only accounts for 7.4% of all NP themes.
The high frequency of Pron theme shows that most students are familiar with such a theme structure and that their writing exhibits features typical to a narrative. Since narratives tend to thematize the major characters in the plot, it is not surprising that our students constantly employ Pron for easy reference to the recurring characters in the story.
On the other hand, there are significant differences between groups in terms of the occurrences of Proper N theme. In particular, the HI group exhibits a higher preference of use (17.8%), far exceeding the MID’s 7.1% and the LOW’s 5.4%. One possible reason may be that in constructing episodic events, the HI essays may involve multiple characters. Since the use of Proper N allows for specific reference to the characters, identification of the participants in the discourse will be made easier. Moreover, since the HI essays consist of more episodes, it is likely that the recurring characters may necessitate the use of Proper N theme when these characters are reintroduced.
On the other categories, we also record a high tendency of Com-N theme use
(30.4%) by the MID group and a preference for Pron theme (60.7%) by the LOW group.
The finding suggests that the three levels of writers may have exploited theme types differently.
Development of NP Theme in the Data
In this section, we will demonstrate how the students employ NP theme in their narratives. The statistics reveals that Pron is the most common unmarked theme, which accounts for over half of overall NP theme use by all three groups of students. Clearly, Pron theme is an important structure that our students frequently employ in developing their discourse. In the following, we will cite paragraphs extracted from the students’
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compositions to exemplify our finding.
First, let us look at how a HI student establishes Pron theme in his narrative.
(32)…1When I started doing my homework, a man came into our restaurant. 2He was a little over weight and looked like in his mid-fifties. 3He ordered a bowl of noodles and started chatting cheerfully with us. 4He said he was going on a vacation. (H-5)
Except for one minor problem occurring in sentence 2 where “looked like in his
mid-fifties” should be revised as “looked in his mid-fifties,” this HI essay distinguishes itself as a piece of good writing. The whole passage exhibits correct grammatical usage and clear diction. Moreover, the development of the storyline is clear because soon after the launch of a new temporal setting at the beginning of the paragraph, the whole passage is devoted to the description of events surrounding an important character “a man.” The coherence of the text is established through TP with a continuous theme in which the Pron theme he is used to refer to the same character throughout several consecutive sentences.
This use of theme places one particular individual in the center of attention and thus avoids possible distraction brought by the introduction of multiple characters in the same episode. In short, the writer’s skillful use of Pron theme has helped promote the
coherence of the text.
Now, let us turn to a paragraph composed by one of our MID students to see the Pron theme it demonstrates.
(33) 1Last week, a man, who is a manager in the company, went to a noodle store.
2In the store was a boy and a woman. 3He brought a bag and put it between he and the boy. 4After finished his noodle, he left the store. 5However he forgot to bring the bag. (M-9)
Several errors are identified in this example. For instance, in the third sentence, “he” in the prepositional phrase “between he and the boy” should be “him.” Meanwhile, in the fourth sentence the verb “finished” following the preposition “after” should take the form of a gerund “finishing” and “there has” in sentence 7 should be “there was.”
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With respect to Pron theme use, this writer’s specification of the characters is not as clear as that in the HI essay. To be specific, the introduction of Pron theme he in the third sentence is problematic. The problem mainly results from the inclusion of an inverted structure in sentence 2, which introduces a new topic “a boy and a woman” into the discourse and places the focus of the discourse on these new characters. While most readers would assume that the Pron theme he in the third sentence should refer to the
“boy” in its preceding sentence because it is the nearest possible referent for a male character, this use of theme nonetheless betrays the readers’ expectation since the third sentence clearly describes the behavior of “the man” rather than “the boy.”
Consequently, this use of theme may cause a sense of disorientation and disrupt the coherence of the text.
As for the LOW group, Pron theme is also common. However, since these students tend to include Pron theme without a clear referent, serious coherence breaks may occur. The following is an example by one of our LOW students.
(34) …1I found the man rushed out of the door so quickly when a police went into the door. 2I opened the bag and found there was a number of money in it.
3We talked the police about the strange man and gave it to him. (L-1)
Several errors are identified in this example. In the first sentence, “a police” should be written “a policeman”; in the second, the quantifier “a number of” can be revised as “a huge amount of” so as to modify the non-count noun “money.” In the third sentence, the verb “talked” should be written “told.”
Nevertheless, the revisions do not seem to improve the coherence of the text. In fact, the writer’s narration appears disoriented and the passage is difficult to read. We believe the problem primarily results from the misuse of Pron theme in sentence 3.
Since there is not a clear referent for the identification of “we” in the adjacent sentences, it is difficult for the readers to picture other participants involved in the scene besides the Pron theme I. Although in the original text, a peripheral character “my mother” was
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once introduced at the beginning of the story, it might still take the readers some time to figure out its relationship with the theme we. This use of theme makes wrong
presumption about the readers’ knowledge of the discourse and is likely to cause confusion and coherence breaks in the text.
Apart from Pron theme, there are also differences between groups on the use of Proper N theme and Com-N theme. In particular, the HI group is found to use Proper N theme more often to help distinguish different characters more correctly and clearly. In contrast, the MID compositions are characterized with indiscriminate Com-N theme, whose misuse often fails to identify different characters unambiguously and may result in discontinuity in the discourse.
Below is a paragraph written by a HI level student.
(35) 1Peter is a little boy and 2his mother is a cook selling noodles near the train station. 3Last week, a man went to the store to have a meal. 4The man wore a suit and brought a bag which looked very heavy. 5He soon finished the noodles and left. 6He didn’t notice that he left his bag in the store. 7When Peter’s mother was going to close the store at night, she checked the store and find a bag on the chair. 8Peter opened the bag and was surprised to find lots of money in the bag. (H-3)
Few errors are found in this example except one related to tense: “find” in sentence 7 should be corrected as “found.” In terms of plotting, the writer introduces three main characters in this paragraph: Peter, his mother, and a man. After the initial presentation of Peter and his mother in the first sentence, the writer brings in a new participant a man in the third sentence. It appears that this new character is where the focus is since in the following sentences the writer employs TP with a continuous theme in which the man and Pron theme he referring to this man is repeated through 4 consecutive sentences. The repeating of the same theme not only helps highlight the prominence of the man but also provides necessary information related to the development of the discourse.
At a closer look, we also observe that the description of the new character a man is
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very different from that of the other two participants. Unlike Peter and his mother, the man took over the stage and became the key and only player in a series of events after he was first introduced. Apparently, the writer is making strategic theme choice to
highlight the events that revolve around this key character while playing down the significance of the secondary participants at the current stage of the discourse.
Moreover, through the continuous theme, the pace of the event is increased. At the end of the episode, the secondary participants are skillfully reintroduced into the plot through a Proper N theme Peter and its peer Peter’s mother, which not only avoids ambiguity but enables the readers to recognize these characters after the intervention of the character the man.
As explained in the literature review, theme and rheme form a structural dyad and is often mapped onto information system so that while theme often carries given
information, rheme comments on theme or supplies new information about the theme.
From the above example, we notice that this is exactly how the author constructs the narrative in which when the theme repeats the same character, the rheme is used to describe a series of events related to that character and is responsible for pushing the communication forward. We may conclude that this HI level student has used Proper N theme skillfully and effectively.
Now, let us turn to a less successful essay written by one of our MID students to see how Com-N theme operates.
(36) …1The man dashed out immediately without taking his bag. 2I was so curious that mom and I opened up it and found that there were lots of cash in. 3We called the police and went back to our stand. 4The man thought of his bag while he was going to buy the ticket at Shin-chi train station. 5He returned back to our stand soon. (M-6)
Several errors are identified in this example. For instance, in the second sentence,
“opened up it” should be written “opened it,” while “there were” should be changed into
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“there was” so that the verb agrees with the non-count subject NP “cash.” Also, in the fifth sentence the verb phrase “returned back” should be revised as “came back.”
In addition to the grammatical errors, the text is also hampered by the misuse of Com-N theme in sentence 4. Although the Com-N theme the man is a recurring character and its identification can be traced back to sentence 1, its sudden appearance after a gap of absence in sentence 2 and 3 still results in disruption in the flow of the discourse. It appears that the writer meant to switch the setting at this point of the discourse and to resume the description of a recurring character the man mentioned in the previous text. However, instead of providing background information to inform the readers for the switch first, the writer introduces a Com-N theme the man into the discourse. Since this use of theme does not prepare the readers for the change of scene or event, possible coherence breaks may occur. Potential confusion could have been avoided if the writer had supplied background information at the sentence onset prior to the presentation of the recurring character.
Categories of PP + NP Theme
As discussed in the previous section, PP + NP theme constitutes 11.4% of overall theme use in the students’ narratives. Although the frequency is not prominent, PP is said to possess the potential to supply background information for the main clause.
As discussed in the previous section, PP + NP theme constitutes 11.4% of overall theme use in the students’ narratives. Although the frequency is not prominent, PP is said to possess the potential to supply background information for the main clause.