METHODS
To investigate whether students can benefit from listening to educational podcasts through smartphones and whether there is any change in students’ attitudes toward MALL after the experiment, a pretest-posttest design was applied to a group of college students. During the one-month experiment period, students were required to listen to English learning podcasts and their gains in general listening ability, vocabulary items, and grammar knowledge were examined to evaluate the effectiveness of listening podcasts via smartphones on language learning.
Participants
A group of 60 first-year students in National Taiwan Normal University from college of liberal arts and college of education was recruited to consist the participants of the present study. Based on a placement test held by the school, they were all assigned to the same Freshman English class of high-intermediate level and thus regarded as having similar English proficiency. On joining the experiment, students were informed that the goals of the project were to help them gain vocabulary and grammar knowledge and to introduce useful resources for English learning.
To further investigate the possible effects of smartphones as a language learning tool, participants were assigned evenly to PC group (the control group, N = 30) or SP group (the experimental group, N = 30) mostly based on their ownership of smartphones.
Instruments Smartphones
During the one-month experiment period, students in the SP group used their own smartphones or smartphones provided by the researcher with Internet and MP3 capabilities to receive emails from the researcher. Each day, two short podcasts targeting on specific vocabulary items or grammar points were sent to students’
smartphones via email, and students were required to download the podcast files and listen to them on smartphones whenever and wherever they want. On the other hand, students in the PC group also received identical emails and required to listen to the podcasts on their personal computers.
Podcasts
Though a great abundance of educational podcasts have been produced for language learners, it is not warranted that all of them are equally trustworthy or meet the needs of the research. In the current study, existing series of podcasts were selected to provide students with authentic input based on several criteria. First of all, the podcasts should be produced either by well-known organizations (e.g., BBC) or by individuals with experiences and advanced degree in the field of language teaching.
Secondly, the podcasts must have at least 30 episodes and new episodes keep being released so the researcher could have sufficient segments to assign during the one-month experiment. Thirdly, since the main purpose of the present study is to investigate the impact of podcasts especially on vocabulary and grammar learning, series having a narrow focus on vocabulary or grammar were thought to be more appropriate. With these criteria in mind, the researcher decided to utilize three podcast series: the first one is The English We Speak, which introduces vocabulary items that can be used in everyday context; the second one is Grammar Girl, which covers a
certain element of English grammar in each episode; the third one is English Bites, which is a video podcast series presenting conversational expressions and basic grammar patterns. In the following part, more detailed descriptions and information about the three podcast series are provided.
The English We Speak
BBC Learning English is a well-known website that offers diverse programs and activities ranging from more general English like news or business English to specific domains or skills like listening, reading, and vocabulary for ESL/EFL learners. All of the resources like podcasts, video shows, transcripts, quizzes and recommendations for language teachers are entirely free. The English We Speak is a series of podcasts under the section of Grammar, Vocabulary, and Pronunciation and aims to introduce vocabulary items or idiomatic expressions used by native speaker in daily life.
Figure 2: BBC Learning English, The English We Speak
From January, 2011 till today, new episodes of The English We Speak have been uploaded to the websites every Tuesday, with the transcripts released at the same time. Learners can choose to listen to the broadcast online, download the MP3 file, or subscribe to the program’s podcast and automatically receive the latest episode when it is available. The content of the broadcast basically is a short dialogue between two hosts, in which the target item is embedded and introduced to audience with clear definition or elaboration, various contexts, and sufficient example sentences.
Following is one example transcript of the podcast introducing “the creeps.”
Neil: Hello and welcome to The English We Speak, I'm Neil (demonic laughter).
Li: And I'm Li. (scream)
Neil: It's Halloween time, so we have a special, scary edition of the program today (more demonic laughter).
Li: That's right. It wouldn't be Halloween without something scary for you.
(more screaming).
Neil: Today we want to give you the creeps!
Li: Give them what?!
Neil: The creeps. To give somebody the creeps.
Li: To give somebody the creeps. This means to make someone feel nervous or scared.
Neil: (More demonic laughter)
Li: Stop it Neil! You're giving me the creeps.
Man: (whispering) What's that noise?
Woman: What noise?
Man: Those footsteps… shh... listen…
Woman: I can't hear anything. Stop it! You're giving me the creeps.
Li: That man thought he could hear footsteps in the house they're in. It made the woman scared. She said “You're giving me the creeps.”
Neil: What gives you the creeps, Li?
Li: Oh I hate horror films. Some people find them entertaining but they just scare me.
Neil: Yeah, they always give me the creeps too.
Li: What else gives you the creeps, Neil?
Neil: I really, really hate cockroaches. The way they disappear when you turn a light on. And the fact it's so hard to kill them. They just give me the creeps.
Li: Oh no, I don't like cockroaches either…
Neil: Urgh… just thinking about them gives me the creeps.
Li: I'm scared of spiders! They give me the creeps.
Neil: This music gives me the creeps.
Li: Yeah and that laugh gives me the creeps (demonic laughter).
Neil: That scream gives me the creeps (scream).
Grammar Girl
The podcast Grammar Girl is hosted by Mognon Forgoty, who has a B.A. in English and a background in magazine and technical writing. Although this podcast is not created for ESL/EFL learner specifically, it covers some grammar issues that have been a source of trouble for both native and non-native speakers of English, such as the difference between “further” and “farther”, the confusion caused by “lie” and
“lay”, and when to use “a” or “an”. Starting from 2006, this website still keeps updating their podcasts on a regular basis and nearly 300 episodes remain available online. As many of the web-based podcasts, audience of Grammar Girl can choose to listen online, download the files, or subscribe to its podcast.
Figure 3:Grammar Girl
The episodes selected from Grammar Girl for participants mainly relate to word choice (bring v.s. take, historic v.s. historical) or word-level grammar (a v.s. an, whoever v.s. whomever, when to capitalize nouns). In each episode, only one element or issue is discussed and presented through explanation of the point and a number of examples within a lecture lasting for 5 to no more than 10 minutes. Following is the transcript of one episode discussing “further” v.s. “farther” retrieved from the website.
Today's topic is "further" versus "farther."
Almost every week someone asks me to explain the difference between “further” and
“farther.” Three years ago when I was on the Oprah Winfrey Show, a production assistant grabbed me backstage while my head was still spinning and begged me to give her a way to remember which word to use. So today, I'll try to help you with this continuing conundrum.
"Further" Versus "Farther"
The quick and dirty tip is to use “farther” for physical distance and “further” for metaphorical, or figurative, distance. It's easy to remember because “farther” has the word “far” in it, and “far” obviously relates to physical distance.
For example, imagine Squiggly and Aardvark are flying to a galaxy far, far away, but Squiggly gets bored and starts mercilessly bugging Aardvark. "How much farther?'"
he keeps asking in despair.”
Did you hear that? Squiggly used “farther” because he was asking about physical distance.
If Aardvark gets frustrated with Squiggly, which he surely will, he could respond, “If you complain further, I'm going to shoot you out the airlock.”
Aardvark used “further” because he isn't talking about physical distance, he's talking about a figurative distance: the extent of Squiggly's complaining.
More "Further" Versus "Farther" Tips
If you can't decide which one to use, you're safer using further because farther has some restrictions.
And what if you stop someone in the middle of a sentence to interject something? Do
you say “before we go any further,” or “before we go any farther”?
The good news is that in ambiguous cases it doesn't matter which word you choose.
Although careful writers will try to stick with the distinction between “further” and
“farther,” the Oxford English Dictionary, Fowler's Modern English Usage, and a number of other sources say that, in most cases, it's fine to use “further” and
“farther” interchangeably, especially when the distinction isn't clear. People have been using them interchangeably for hundreds of years, and a few experts don't even follow the distinction. For example, Garner's Modern American Usage notes that in British English, although it's more common for speakers to use “farther” for physical distance, they will regularly use either “further” or “farther” for figurative distance.
It is important to remember that “farther” has a tie to physical distance and can't be used to mean “moreover” or “in addition.”
We're nearly out of fuel. Further, there's an asteroid belt ahead.
A trick I use is to write “furthermore” when I mean “in addition.”
Furthermore, I hope you locked the door when we left.
“Furthermore” is different enough from “further” to keep me from confusing it with
“farther.”
Quick and Dirty Tip
The quick and dirty tip is that “farther” relates to physical distance and
“further” relates to figurative distance. If you can't decide which one to use, you're safer using “further” because “farther” has some restrictions, and if you tend to get confused, try using “furthermore” instead of “further.”
English Bites
Established in 2001 as part of ABC International (Australia Broadcasting Corporation), Australia Network is Australia's international television service, which aims to inform, entertain and inspire audience with a uniquely Australian perspective through their programs. It provides news related to Asian-Pacific regions, cultures as well as sports in Australia, and English learning broadcasts either on TV or via other digital services. Being one of the language learning resources, English Bites series is produced based on the content of another program My Australia, which looks at Australia through the eyes of people from India and the Asia-Pacific region who are studying or living there.
Figure 4:Australia Network, English Bites
In each episode, a student talks to the locals and shares his or her feelings when experiencing a kind of sports, cultural events, or social work. During the five-minute show, the narrator as well as the instructor reminds audience to focus on certain grammatical patterns or expressions in the conversation that are worth learning.
Through emphasizing, explaining, and repeating, the instructor makes the items to be more salient for the audience to acquire. People who would like to learn more about English language and Australia life can watchover60 video podcasts online, download the mp4 files, or subscribe to the series. In the following part, an example transcript of the episode presenting skydiving is provided, with the description or instruction from the narrator boldfaced.
This is a story about skydiving. You'll find out how to do casual introductions, what it means to say 'same here' and what sort of weather 'comes in'.
Today we are going for the skydiving thing. I'm not sure I will jump, you know.
I can't jump couple of stairs and now I'll be jumping from 10,000 feet high. Oh My God. With no rope at all and a person tied to me. That is going to be a good experience and I don't know. I don't know.
She says 'I will jump' and 'I'll be jumping'. They mean the same thing – she will jump in the future. Notice that if you use 'be', you must use the 'ing' form – will be jumping. Will jump/will be jumping. Listen again:
I'm not sure I will jump, you know. I can't jump couple of stairs and now I'll be jumping from 10,000 feet high.
When Preeti meets the man who will jump with her, they introduce themselves casually, like this:
Preeti is it.
Yes, it is.
I'm Adam. How you going? Nice to meet you.
I'm good. Same here.
Preeti replies to 'nice to meet you' with 'same here'.
I'm Adam. How you going? Nice to meet you.
I'm good. Same here.
You say 'same here' to agree. In this exchange, 'same here' means the same as 'nice to meet you'. Now listen to Adam explaining some things about the dive.
Now, we'll freefall for about 35 seconds. Yes. And then I'll open the parachute. Okay.
Now, I can't talk to you in freefall. We'll be doing about 200 kilometers an hour.
Alright, so it's a bit noisy. Yes. So the only signals you're going to get in freefall is a tap on the shoulders, bring your arms out.
He uses the word ‘now’ to emphasize that what he is saying is important:
Now, we'll freefall for about 35 seconds. Now, I can't talk to you in freefall. We'll be doing about 200 kilometers an hour. Alright, so it's a bit noisy.
So what can go wrong?
Weather came in on us because there's a front coming through. It's got lightning in it and the cloud has come over and we're not allowed to jump through cloud. So it's not safe so we're bringing them back down.
The weather can 'come in'. Weather that 'comes in' is usually a storm. What do you say when storm clouds go away?
What happens now?
Well, we can wait for the weather. We'll probably go on a weather hold now and wait until the weather clears.
Wait until the weather clears. Clouds 'come over' or 'come in' and then they 'clear'.
So what happens when they clear?
It's too high, very, very high. Where's he? He's gone. Oh My God.
He's gone. Notice that he uses the past participle of go, gone.
Where's he? He's gone. Oh My God.
You use past participles such as gone with 'he's, which is a contraction of 'he is' or 'he has. We'll finish by finding out if Preeti will jump or will be jumping:
Ready to go?
Yes.
Alright, a big smile for the camera. Alright.
No!
It was just fraction of some seconds.
He said, 'Put your left leg out,' and I thought, 'I'm not prepared. No way leg out.' And first thought I intend to stop myself and then I pushed myself out so that I can jump.
How was that, Preeti?
That was fantastic! Woo hoo!
Strategies Used to Enhance Comprehension
In the process of language learning, comprehensible input is widely recognized as a key component. To enhance listeners’ comprehension, the podcasts used in the present study have applied several strategies to ensure comprehensibility. As Blau (1990) suggested, shorten the length and slow the pace can contribute to listeners’
understanding. Each episodes of The English We Speak lasts for only 2 to 4 minutes, the clips of English Bites lasts for 5 minutes, and the lecture of Grammar Girl mostly continues for 5 to 8 minutes. With the short length of each segment, students are more likely to keep concentrated and make use of their free time for a mini English lesson.
Moreover, elaboration and redundancy are also useful techniques to make input more comprehensible (Rost, 2006). In all of the podcasts, target items are introduced with rich contexts, and natural repetition or paraphrasing of the items can be heard throughout the broadcast. Last but not least, since learners must pay attention to
various linguistic features in the input with limited attentional capacity available for processing, it is very likely that some of the features will be missed by the students (Field, 2008). To help students attend to the target form and thus have a greater opportunity of acquisition, instructional techniques like input flood (Kon, 2002),which means containing more than a “normal” number of the target form, visual aids or aural enhancement like a change in tone or pitch when the target term appears, and indication that points out the feature, all make the target content in the podcasts more salient and noticeable for students.
Procedure
Unlike many MALL research that was conducted in a classroom context, the present study attempted to investigate the effects of podcasts on students’ informal learning via smartphone in everyday life. The whole procedure took about one and a half month, with orientation, initial and later surveys, as well as pre-, post-, and delayed posttest included. In the orientation session, information about the brands, the functions, and the usages of students’ smartphones together with students’ previous experience in and current attitudes toward mobile assisted language learning were surveyed. Also, a pretest on general listening ability, target vocabulary items, and grammar points was conducted to assess students’ current knowledge.
During the experiment period, both the PC group and SP group received an email containing two podcast segments, one from The English We Speak, the other from Grammar Girlor English Biteson a daily basis. Since each segment of The English We Speak usually lasts for only 2 to 3 minutes and is presented in a form of casual conversation, it would not be too demanding for students to listen every day.
However, the lecture of Grammar Girl is rather more academic and takes students 7 minutes on average to finish a lesson. In order to maintain a reasonable learning load
and keep students’ interests in podcast listening, the researcher decided to send one Grammar Girl episode to students every other day. On days when no Grammar Girl
episode was assigned, the less demanding and more entertaining video podcast English Bites was provided. Every day in the one-month period, students spent around
8 to 10 minutes on listening to two podcasts for once, with no scripts provided. In total, participants finished 30 episodes of The English We Speak, 15 of Grammar Girl, and 15 of English Bites(See Appendix A, B, and C).While students in the PC group used computer to listen to the podcasts, students in the SP group were asked to finish the listening tasks with the help of their smartphones. Both groups could decide on when and where to listen to the podcasts. At the same time, participants were required
8 to 10 minutes on listening to two podcasts for once, with no scripts provided. In total, participants finished 30 episodes of The English We Speak, 15 of Grammar Girl, and 15 of English Bites(See Appendix A, B, and C).While students in the PC group used computer to listen to the podcasts, students in the SP group were asked to finish the listening tasks with the help of their smartphones. Both groups could decide on when and where to listen to the podcasts. At the same time, participants were required