Computer Games

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causing inreversible consequences. Gu and Johnson (1996) proposed two vocabulary learning strategies: metacognitive regulation and cognitive strategies, which included six parts: guessing, using a dictionary, note-taking, rehearsal, encoding, and activating, all of which were regarded as efficient vocabulary learning strategies. As for the learning of L2 (Second Language) vocabulary, Brown and Payne (1994, as cited in Hatch & Brown, 1995, p. 373) demonstrated five steps of English learning strategy: (a) having suitable materials for meeting new words, (b) getting a clear image, either visual or auditory forms of the new words, (c) learning the meaning of the words, (d) making a strong memory link between the forms and the meanings of the words, and (e) using the words. All strategies for learning L2 vocabulary are, to some degree, related to these five steps mentioned above.

However, many studies (Sylven & Sundqvist, 2012; Smith et al., 2013;

Sundqvist & Wikstrom, 2015) confirmed that vocabulary games have high potential to enhance learners’ English level. Accordingly, this study aims to measure whether or not two kinds of different mobile phone vocabulary learning game APPs with significantly different design factors have different effects on vocabulary learning performance.

2.2 Computer Games

Among several definitions for “game” in the past literatures, Hays (2005: 15)

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argued that game as “an artificially constructed, competitive activity with a specific goal, a set of rules and constraints that is located in a specific context.” At present, computer games have become an indispensible part in our social and cultural environment (Oblinger, 2004) and are particularly attractive to children and adolescents, some of whom are therefore addicted to it because of its miscellaneous variety and entertainment (Downes, 1999; Mumtaz, 2001). Many previous studies (Gee, 2003; Rickard & Oblinger, 2003; Schwabe & Göth, 2005; Shaffer, Squire, Halverson, & Gee, 2005) indicated that if combined well with meaningful learning materials, games can be excellent ways to improve learning motivation and performance.

2.2.1 Digital Game-Based Learning

Digital games have long been viewed as important entertainment in the lives of children and teenagers. Since the 1970s, digital games have been mainly used as a leisure activity. In recent years, however, such use has changed; more and more people nowadays try to make use of it for different kinds of purposes, not just for leisure and entertainment (Boyle, Connoly, Hainey, & Boyle, 2012). For instance,

games that are designed for the use of education goals are thought of as “serious games”, which are designed differently from games for entertainment purposes

(Sørensen & Meyer, 2007).

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Game-based learning, meaning that games are used for educational purposes, has been widely used in many fields of language education. Many studies (Barab et al., 2007; Hopelab, 2006; Ito et al., 2008; Schrader and McCreery, 2007; Squire et al., 2008; Warren et al., 2008) paid attention to building connections between gaming and learning. For example, Papastergiou (2009), who utilized digital game-based learning for a high school computer science class, demonstrated that game-based learning can efficiently enhance the knowledge of computer memory concepts of high school students as well as raise their learning motivation when compared with group without game-related material.

Garris, Ahlers, and Driskell (2002) pointed out that there are three major reasons why educators prefer utilizing game applications as tools in teaching. First, the trend of educational philosophy has shifted from traditional method, teacher-centered model, to learner-centered model. Learners nowadays are encouraged to play a more active role in their own learning. Second, evidences show that games can effectively enhance users’ learning and understanding toward complex subjects. Finally, thanks to the entertainment of the game, which will undoubtedly attract users’ attention, games can successfully trigger users’ motivation for learning. Gee (2003) suggested that computer games are powerful educational approach which enhances the ability of problem-solving behavior, motivation and social networks, and that it also facilitates

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and supports learning.

In recent years, DGBL has been broadly utilized for a variety of educational purposes since it enables learners to attain their learning goals by simply playing games (Federation of American Scientists, 2006; Gee, 2003; Prensky, 2001). Prensky (2001) pointed out that computer games can develop a new learning field of education that fits students’ learning habits and interests. Norman (1993) also argued that games can meet the needs of basic requirements of learning environments and that they can offer an engaging environment for learning. Moreover, Yu, Chang, Liu, and Chan (2002) conducted an experiment on the use of a game for high school English learning, mainly focusing on students’ preferences and satisfaction from the learning experience. Moreover, Rosas et al. (2003) found that the use of games on portable devices can successfully improve motivation and learning outcomes compared to traditional teaching in mathematics and reading. Similarly, Virvou, Katsionis, and Manos (2005) compared a virtual reality game to educational program without the gaming part in geography, confirming that the game was very motivating and that it helped the students retain or improve their knowledge. In language learning field, Sukstrienwong and Vongsumedh (2013) claimed that those who learn English vocabulary by using digital games generated more positive attitude toward vocabulary learning. Besides, they had significantly better performance than those who didn’t

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play games on mobile devices. Also, Uzun et al. (2013) found that learners utilizing digital games for learning turned out to outperform other groups, generating positive perceptions toward vocabulary learning and further had great influence on future vocabulary retention.