Broader conception of public morals
Necessity Test
Possible use for distinguishing like products
Achieving harmonization between trade liberalization and other societal values (animal welfare, environmental protection, human right…etc.)
Further cases needed
18 向 WTO 申請磋商程序(requested consultations)21。原以為會使歐盟暫緩實施海豹產品之相 關禁令，但歐盟卻在同年公布海豹禁令(Regulation (EC) No. 1007/2009)，並在隔年公布其 施行細則(implementation of Regulation (EC) No. 1007/2009)。
（二） 歐盟海豹禁令之實施
1. 歐盟(當時為歐洲共同體)制定 1007/2009 號規則之法律依據：
歐盟制定 1007/2009 號規則極其施行細則之依據可見於 「歐洲聯盟運作條 約(Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union，下稱 TFEU)22」第 26 條及第 114 條。23其中，TFEU 第 114 條位在條約中的第三部分(Part III: Union Policies And Internal Actions)的第 7 節(Title VII: Common Rules On Competition, Taxation And Approximation Of Laws)第 3 章(Chapter 3: approximation of laws)，規範歐盟的議會 及理事會須依照同條約第 26 條之意旨，執行其業務。節錄之條文如下：
TFEU Article 114:
1. Save where otherwise provided in the Treaties, the following provisions shall apply for the achievement of the objectives set out in Article 26. The European Parliament and the Council shall, acting in accordance with the ordinary legislative procedure and after consulting the Economic and Social Committee, adopt the measures for the approximation of the provisions laid down by law,
18 Trade in seal products, EU Official Website: Environment, available at: http://ec.europa.eu /environment/biodiversity/animal_welfare/seals/seal_hunting.htm (last visited: Jan. 21, 2016).
19 Seal Pups Directive: adopted in 1983, prohibits the import of certain seal pup products into the EU.
20 1993 年，加拿大政府制定「海洋哺乳動物條例」，禁止捕殺兩週齡以下的小海豹，突破歐盟 法規的限制，再度開啟商業
獵捕的大門，造成至少兩百萬隻小海豹被獵殺。2009 年 9 月，歐 盟乾脆禁止海豹相關啟品進口，毛皮市場隨之萎縮。節 錄自獵殺海豹！，環境資訊中心，網址：http://e-info.org.tw/node/54677，最後瀏覽日期：2016.01.20。
21 WTO 之磋商程序為為申請爭端解決小組的前置作業。
22 在此須注意當時應為 TEC，而非 TFEU。其演變如下述：TEC, TEU and TFEU: In the previous Nice Treaty, the abbreviation TEC was often added after an Article to distinguish its articles from
TEU-articles of the Treaty on European Union, referring to the second and third pillar in the same treaty.The Lisbon Treaty amended the Treaty on European Union (TEU) and the Treaty Establishing the European Community (TEC). The TEU has kept its previous title. The TEC has been renamed the “Treaty on the Functioning of the Union” - TFEU.
23 原為 TEC 第 95 條。
19
regulation or administrative action in Member States which have as their object the establishment and functioning of the internal market. ...
3. The Commission, in its proposals envisaged in paragraph 1 concerning health, safety, environmental protection and consumer protection, will take as a base a high level of protection, taking account in particular of any new development based on scientific facts. Within their respective powers, the European Parliament and the Council will also seek to achieve this objective. ...
而 TFEU 第 114 條所提之第 26 條，則位在同部分的第一 節(Title I: The Internal Market)，規範的是歐盟內部市場的運作。而第 26 條賦予歐盟得以發展及 保護內部市場為目的，對市場實行一定的措施。本文在此節錄條文如下：
TFEU Article 26:
1. The Union shall adopt measures with the aim of establishing or ensuring the functioning of the internal market, in accordance with the relevant provisions of the Treaties.
2. The internal market shall comprise an area without internal frontiers in which the free movement of goods, persons, services and capital is ensured in accordance with the provisions of the Treaties.
3. The Council, on a proposal from the Commission, shall determine the guidelines and conditions necessary to ensure balanced progress in all the sectors concerned.
1. 1007/2009 號規則實施之內容：
‘[t]he placing on the market of seal products ... result[ing] from hunts traditionally conducted by Inuit and other indigenous communities and [which] contribute to
24 Trade in seal products, EU Official Website: Environment, available at: http://ec.europa.eu /environment/biodiversity/animal_welfare/seals/seal_hunting.htm (last visited: Jan. 21, 2016).
20
their subsistence’25
(2) 為管理海洋生物資源 MRM 例外
‘the placing on the market of seal products ... result[ing] from by-products of hunting that is regulated by national law and conducted for the sole purpose of the sustainable management of marine resources [and provided that this] placing on the market [is done] only on a non-profit basis [ie] the nature and quantity of the seal products shall not be such as to indicate that they are being placed on the market for commercial reasons’26
(3) 旅者例外
‘the import of seal products ... where it is of an occasional nature and consists exclusively of goods for the personal use of travellers or their families. The nature and quantity of such goods shall not be such as to indicate that they are being imported for commercial reasons’27
其中，尊重及保障原住民的「IC 例外」的細節，則是規範在施行細則中。而 上述三個例外，具有爭議性的為「IC 例外」及「MRM 例外」。
一、 判決分析
（一）本案判決結論
2014 年 5 月，WTO 之上訴機構公布最終之決定。其認為縱歐盟之海豹禁令「整體」28 有其合法之立法目的得援引「1994 年關稅及貿易總協定(General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994，下稱 GATT 1994)第 20 條(a)款」29保護公共道德之理由加以暫時正當化，但小
25 Regulation (EC) No 1007/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 September 2009 on trade in seal products, OJ L 286, 31.10.2009, p. 36–39, Article 3.
26 Id. Article 3.
27 Id. Article 3.
28上訴機構認為：海豹禁令條文與三項例外有密不可分的關係，因此不能僅以三項例外審查是 否具合法性。而需對海豹禁
令(ban)和例外(exception)視為一體審查。see Appellate Body Report, EC-Seal Products, ¶ 2.155.轉引自施虹妤，試析歐盟海豹 案之後續發展，經貿法訊第 176 期，2015 年 4 月。
29 GATT 1994 Art. 20(a),” Subject to the requirement that such measures are not applied in a manner which would constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between countries where the same conditions prevail, or a disguised restriction on international trade, nothing in this Agreement shall be construed to prevent the adoption or enforcement by any contracting party of measures:(a) necessary to protect public morals;”
21 Barriers to Trade，下稱 TBT Agreement)第 2.1 條之規範之部分，上訴機構在此認為歐盟 實施的海豹禁令並非技術性法規(technical regulation)，而推翻原爭端解決小組之認定。
31 see Appellate Body Report, EC-Seal Products, ¶¶ 5.95-5.96.
32 see Appellate Body Report, EC-Seal Products, ¶ 5.317.
33 see Appellate Body Report, EC-Seal Products, ¶¶ 5.322-5.325.
34 see Appellate Body Report, EC-Seal Products, ¶¶ 5.116-5.117.
22 Body Report, EC-Asbestos, ¶¶ 109-111.
36 Panel Report, European Communities-Measures Prohibiting the Importation and Marketing of Seal Products, ¶ 7.110, WT/DS400, 401/R (Nov. 25, 2013).
37 Appellate Body Report, EC-Seal Products, ¶ 5.29.
38 Panel Report, EC-Seal Products, ¶ 7.258.
39 Id.
23
關於本案在認定歐盟是否有違反國民待遇之義務，Ming Du 於《World Trade Review》發表之「‘Treatment No Less Favorable’ and the Future of National Treatment Obligation in GATT Article III:4 after EC–Seal Products」一文中，42批判本案 WTO 關於 GATT 國民待遇義務之認定。並嘗試探索在海豹案後，GATT 第三條第四款之國民待遇 義務之意涵、確切範圍。作者認為 WTO 上訴機構釐清了未來 WTO 爭端解決的「三大 議題」43。
40 Id. ¶ 7.259.
41 Appellate Body Report, European Communities-Measures Prohibiting the Importation and Marketing of Seal Products, ¶ 5.125, WT/DS400, 401/AB/R (May 22, 2014).
42 Ming Du, ‘Treatment No Less Favorable’ and the Future of National Treatment Obligation in GATT Article III:4 after EC–Seal Products, 15 WORLD TRADE REVIEW 163, 139-163 (2016).
43 在海豹案中，上訴機構裁定，所有扭曲市場之產品競爭機會的國內立法規範，無論其立法理由，初步而言，違反第三條
第四款。這一決定顯示上訴機構重視措施之效果，且僅以效果界定保護主義。國家在規範上的權利限縮，未來國家立法規 範會取決以下三大議題。
(1) The ‘genuine relationship’ requirement
第一個議題為「真實關係」(genuine relationship’ )之要求，即國家某一項立法措施真正造成進口產品相對於國內同類產品競 爭機會之不良效果。
(2) The role of ‘design, structure and expected operations of the measure’
第二項議題，一項措施之「設計、結構以及其可預期之行動」，也是未來在 WTO 關於國民待遇之爭端中的一重要議題。在
國民待遇之分析中，上訴機構拒絕了第三條第一款對於國民待遇之詮釋，即以目的作為一項立法是否為保護主義措施一項 標準。
(3) Consumer preferences and ‘like products’ determination
第三項議題為，界定同類產品之不同標準。在案例中，WTO 之規範重視的是，在市場中產品之間的競爭性關係，以消費者 角度界定“同類產品”。但兩項產品僅具有競爭性關係亦不足以成為同類產品，關鍵的是在產品特質以及背景之判斷，而非 僅就兩組產品的需求交叉彈性分析決定同類產品，故同類產品的評估將依個案而不同。
See Ming Du, ‘Treatment No Less Favorable’ and the Future of National Treatment Obligation in GATT Article III:4 after EC–Seal
24 個關鍵詞，分別是「同類產品」、「不低於國內產品之待遇」(treatment no less favorable)、
「以保護為目的」(so as to afford protection)。45
作者進一步，針對上訴機構對於「不低於國內產品之待遇」的進行分析詮釋。首 內。而上訴機構在海豹案中，對於 treatment no less favorable 之詮釋，至少存在四個問
Products, 15 WORLD TRADE REVIEW 163, 155-163 (2016).
44 Ming Du, ‘Treatment No Less Favorable’ and the Future of National Treatment Obligation in GATT Article III:4 after EC–Seal Products, 15 WORLD TRADE REVIEW 163, 139-140 (2016).
45 Ming Du, ‘Treatment No Less Favorable’ and the Future of National Treatment Obligation in GATT Article III:4 after EC–Seal Products, 15 WORLD TRADE REVIEW 163, 140-41 (2016).
46 Ming Du, ‘Treatment No Less Favorable’ and the Future of National Treatment Obligation in GATT Article III:4 after EC–Seal Products, 15 WORLD TRADE REVIEW 163, 141-44 (2016).
47 Ming Du, ‘Treatment No Less Favorable’ and the Future of National Treatment Obligation in GATT Article III:4 after EC–Seal Products, 15 WORLD TRADE REVIEW 163, 144-49 (2016).
25
題。48
第一，上訴機構在海豹案之詮釋，讓第四部分第一條無意義；但根據該條文協商 過程（條約準備工作），顯示國民待遇之義務應當根據第四部分第一條解釋。49第二，
上訴機構在海豹案對於‘treatment no less favorable 之詮釋，將導致與第三條第二部分第 二句話不一致的決定(rulings)，即會導致國內財政措施享有比非財政措施更寬的政策空 間。50第三，該詮釋將會導致 GATT(1994)與 TBT 協定未來之不一致。第二十條是一個 政府干預之正當理由的封閉列表，且該詮釋考慮了歐盟海豹禁令的立法目的，這與第 三條第四款之「低於國內產品之待遇」不考慮目的的分析發生衝突。51第四，上訴機構 對於‘treatment no less favorable 之詮釋也無助於消除 GATT 中「原則－例外」的二分。
WTO 規範的階層秩序仍然是自由貿易為常數，非經濟競爭價值，例如健康、保護環境
Paola Conconi 和 Tania Voon 於《World Trade Review》發表之「EC–Seal Products: The Tension between Public Morals and International Trade Agreements」一文中，54以法律與 經濟角度探討歐盟海豹產品爭端。其中關於得否以「公共道德作為貿易限制的理由」？
48 Ming Du, ‘Treatment No Less Favorable’ and the Future of National Treatment Obligation in GATT Article III:4 after EC–Seal Products, 15 WORLD TRADE REVIEW 163, 151 (2016).
49 Ming Du, ‘Treatment No Less Favorable’ and the Future of National Treatment Obligation in GATT Article III:4 after EC–Seal Products, 15 WORLD TRADE REVIEW 163, 151 (2016).
50 Ming Du, ‘Treatment No Less Favorable’ and the Future of National Treatment Obligation in GATT Article III:4 after EC–Seal Products, 15 WORLD TRADE REVIEW 163, 151-52 (2016).
51 Ming Du, ‘Treatment No Less Favorable’ and the Future of National Treatment Obligation in GATT Article III:4 after EC–Seal Products, 15 WORLD TRADE REVIEW 163, 152-53 (2016).
52 Ming Du, ‘Treatment No Less Favorable’ and the Future of National Treatment Obligation in GATT Article III:4 after EC–Seal Products, 15 WORLD TRADE REVIEW 163, 153-55 (2016).
53 Ming Du, ‘Treatment No Less Favorable’ and the Future of National Treatment Obligation in GATT Article III:4 after EC–Seal Products, 15 WORLD TRADE REVIEW 163, 163 (2016).
54 Paola Conconi & Tania Voon, EC–Seal Products: The Tension between Public Morals and International Trade Agreements, 15 WORLD TRADE REVIEW 211, 211 - 234 (2016).
26
Robert L. Howse、Joanna Langille 和 Katie Sykes 於《George Washington International Law Review》發表之「Pluralism In Practice: Moral Legislation And The Law Of The WTO After Seal Products」一文中，59作者主張，WTO 之規範應當積極保障多元主義，容許 各個會員國可以透過立法表達其道德、宗教信念。WTO 不應如某些評論家所主張的，
55 Paola Conconi & Tania Voon, EC–Seal Products: The Tension between Public Morals and International Trade Agreements, 15 WORLD TRADE REVIEW 211, 229-233 (2016).
56 Paola Conconi & Tania Voon, EC–Seal Products: The Tension between Public Morals and International Trade Agreements, 15 WORLD TRADE REVIEW 211, 229-233 (2016).
57 Paola Conconi & Tania Voon, EC–Seal Products: The Tension between Public Morals and International Trade Agreements, 15 WORLD TRADE REVIEW 211, 233 (2016).
58 Paola Conconi & Tania Voon, EC–Seal Products: The Tension between Public Morals and International Trade Agreements, 15 WORLD TRADE REVIEW 211, 233 (2016).
59 Howse, Robert L. & Langille, Joanna & Sykes, Katie, Pluralism in Practice: Moral Legislation and the Law of the WTO after Seal Products, 48 GEO WASH INT'L LREV 81, 81-150 (2015).
27
員國，也保存了 WTO 機構本身的正當性。60
關於 WTO 所表彰的多元主義和公共道德（Pluralism And Public Morals In The WTO），作者指出，一個規範是否以公共道德為目的，則必須檢視該規範是否基於一
有關於動物福利為公共道德之討論，Katie Sykes 在《Transnational Environmental Law》發表之「Globalization and the Animal Turn: How International Trade Law Contributes
60 Howse, Robert L. & Langille, Joanna & Sykes, Katie, Pluralism in Practice: Moral Legislation and the Law of the WTO after Seal Products, 48 GEO WASH INT'L LREV 81, 81-83 (2015).
61 Howse, Robert L. & Langille, Joanna & Sykes, Katie, Pluralism in Practice: Moral Legislation and the Law of the WTO after Seal Products, 48 GEO WASH INT'L LREV 81, 83-84 (2015).
62 Howse, Robert L. & Langille, Joanna & Sykes, Katie, Pluralism in Practice: Moral Legislation and the Law of the WTO after Seal Products, 48 GEO WASH INT'L LREV 81, 90-91 (2015).
63 Howse, Robert L. & Langille, Joanna & Sykes, Katie, Pluralism in Practice: Moral Legislation and the Law of the WTO after Seal Products, 48 GEO WASH INT'L LREV 81, 107-109 (2015).
64 Howse, Robert L. & Langille, Joanna & Sykes, Katie, Pluralism in Practice: Moral Legislation and the Law of the WTO after Seal Products, 48 GEO WASH INT'L LREV 81, 109 (2015).
28
to Global Norms of Animal Protection」65一文中，認為本案之決定以及 TPP 協定中的動 物保護條款，並非孤立的事件、特例，而可能是新興趨勢。當代的國際貿易法為動物
to Global Norms of Animal Protection」65一文中，認為本案之決定以及 TPP 協定中的動 物保護條款，並非孤立的事件、特例，而可能是新興趨勢。當代的國際貿易法為動物