Souvenir. It is decribed as a tangible object purchased to keep or save as a reminder of the city or event in a particular journey (Gordon, 1986). In this thesis, souvenir is based on 2017 Summer Universiade Games where tangible object are purchased to keep as a reminder of the event held in Taiwan.
Pre-purchasing. Consumer decision making includes a nonstop flow of connections in behavioral factors and environmental actions. The process of consumer decision making includes pre-purchase information. In this thesis pre-purchasing is regarded as when consumer realizes that he/she wants souvenir from the 2017 Summer Universiade and goes for information search such as type of quality, variations or alternatives, so that he/she can make the right decision. (Robinson & Doss, 2011)
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Exploratory buying behavior tendency. Baumgartner and Steenkamp (1996) suggested that exploratory tendencies in the consumer buying process consist of seeking of different variety, search for new information, and recreational shopping are all suggestion of
exploratory behavior. In this thesis exploratory buying behavior tendency is the consumers seeking of different variety, information and recreational shopping of souvenir from 2017 Summer Universiade.
Attitude toward information. The three elements consider attitude is behavioral, affective and cognitive. The cognitive elements involve thoughts or ideas individuals have about the product, but often refer to as belief. The affective element contains the feelings or emotions individuals experience. The last element, the behavioral dimension, consists of individuals actions with regard to the object (Runyon & Stewart, 1987). In this thesis attitude toward information is regarded as consumers behavioral, affective and cognitive. The
cognitive elements involve thoughts or ideas individuals have about the souvenir, but often refer to as belief. The affective element contains the feelings or emotions individuals
experiences and the behavioral, involves in people's actions with regard to the souvenirs from 2017 Summer Universiade
Purchasing intention. Mullen and Johnson (2013) suggested that purchasing intention is the preparation of purchasing or the use of products. Intention delivers a connection between consumers' such as their reactions to the products. In this thesis, purchasing intention is regarded as consumers preparation of purchasing or the use of souvenir and their intention toward souvenir of 2017 Summer Universiade.
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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review for this thesis is divided into six sections. The first segment
highlighted the importance of exploratory buying behavior tendency. The second part focused on attitude toward information. Particularly, the relationship between consumers’ purchase decisions. The third part focuses on purchasing intention and related studies. The fourth segments focuses on souvenir purchasing and souvenir from 2017 Summer Universiade. The fifth part is the demographic variables; it is divided into gender, age, educational level, monthly disposable income and media habit. The last section is concluded with a summary
2.1 Exploratory Buying Behavior Tendency
Venkatraman and MacInnis (1985) suggested that the study of exploratory behaviors have always been researched and recognized, and that the consumer have always been observed as a thinker. It seems understandable that while consumers involve in search
(exploratory behavior) such as searching for product to purchase, seeking for different variety of products, information of the product and recreational shopping it is a sign of exploratory behavior. Some theories suggest that people have the motivation or ambition to seek diversity and curiosity drive in new products, but it is viewed varying from individuals to individuals according to different demographics (Raju & Venkatesan, 1980). Consumers consuming of innovation is the trend to purchase new products, services or ideas more frequently and faster than other consumers (Midgley & Dowling, 1978). Baumgartner and Steenkamp (1996) suggested in the finding of this observation, the author has formed the Exploratory Buying Behavior Tendency (EBBT) scale, these models are based on optimal stimulation level (OSL)
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theory that consisted of two procedures of exploratory buying behavior known as:
Exploratory Acquisition of Products (EAP) and Exploratory Information Seeking (EIS).
Furthermore, Murray (1991) suggested that consumers who have previous experience of the product could logically reduce its uncertainty. Distanced learning can reduce the uncertainty because it estimates direct knowledge with the product. Furthermore, to explain the
constructing of the scale for the analysis of exploratory buying behavior tendencies (EBBT).
The instrument is a characteristic measuring and evaluating individuality differences towards individual’s nature to participate in the two procedures of exploratory buying behavior, such as exploratory acquisition of products and exploratory information seeking:
Exploratory acquisition of products (EAP). According to Baumgartner and Steenkamp (1996) people with a higher EAP enjoys it more while taking risks in buying products that they are not familiar with, and are keener to attempt new and creative merchandises.
Consumers tend to seek different varieties of value while creating product choices, and alternate their purchase behavior, by trying to reach interesting experiences.
Exploratory information seeking (EIS). According to Baumgartner and Steenkamp (1996), consumers with high EIS are more explorative and tend to seek for more information when purchasing new products. These consumers will search information related to the product including advertisement, articles and will supply experiences of their information about the products to other people.
Prediction of Actual Exploratory Buying Behavior Tendency
The instrument intended to understand individual’s difference in customers' propensities involves in exploratory buying behavior. In addition, understand the dispositional measures of exploratory behavior, and the EBBT scale, as a precise dispositional measure, it allows
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individual to understand motivation of particular consumer behaviors. There are series of predictive validity of the EBBT scale, which are innovative behavior (Foxall, 1986 &
Mittelstaedt, 1976), variety seeking behavior (Van Trijp & Steenkamp, 1992), perceptive reactions to advertisements (Faison, 1977), as well as inquisitiveness driven search for information on products (Hirschman, 1980).
Innovative behavior. A person's decision in purchasing is reflected to the innovative behavior subsequently, he or she finds the product reasonably fresh (Rogers, 1983) also subsequently the purchasing involves risk (Ostlund, 1974). Willing to take chances is positive related to innovative behavior. In addition, choice of product purchasing will significantly relate with EAP and which will be more related to EAP than to EIS.
Variety Seeking Behavior. It often indicates customers' craving for exploration (Raju, 1980), and exploratory purchase behavior clearly processes an individual’s propensity to involve in variety seeking. It is predictable that definite variety seeking behavior will significantly relate to EAP and relate more with EAP than with EIS.
Cognitive response to ads. Exploratory behavior tendencies, which is not only discovered in evident behavior, but also in cognitive activity, specifically to
curiosity-motivated thinking (Berlyne, 1978). Views replicating curiosity have been acknowledged as a significant module of consumer’s reactions to advertisements (Wright, 1973). According to Pearson (1970), the amount of curiosity-motivated thinking created in reaction to an
advertisement will significantly relate with EIS and that the association with EIS would be robust than with EAP.
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Information Seeking. Steenkamp and Baumgartner (1992) have proposed that customer information seeking may also remain inspired from cravings toward an improved purchase decisions or have an overall interest in experiencing additional knowledge about the environment.
2.2Attitude toward Information
Traditionally attitudes have three components: affective, behavioral and cognitive. The affective attitude is feelings or emotions people experience over products whereas the behavioral attitude are consumers action toward the product, and the last component,
cognitive attitude is thoughts or ideas that the consumer has about the product, usually known as beliefs (Runyon & Stewart, 1987). Consumer behavior is more and more easy to predict, referring to consumer’s attitude toward information, which constantly shows the consumers buying decisions in the future, such as the product, service or brand a consumer will buy.
Moreover, the development of attitude are built through time, because of the learning process or being affected by families and social group, furthermore the consumers received
information, experience and personality plays an important role toward the attitude he/she has one the product. Attitude toward information is an attitudinal way to conduct consumers’
pattern. In short, attitudinal behavior pattern of the consumer in regards with their future purchase (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975).
Fishbein (1967) suggested powerfully that an individual’s attitude toward any product is a task of his own beliefs about that product. Furthermore, Moutinho (1987) expressed
searching information is a need to access variety of sources before making a purchase decision. This concept is identified into three considerations for searching information:
motivation, sources, and determinants. The individual’s primary motivation for undertaking the search of information is the progress of planning is to enhance the right decision making
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(Assaker & Hallak, 2013). There are three different types of search information, such as specific search, where consumers’ search of activity related to the problem and ongoing search is when consumers search information of a particular product for a period. Incidental search happens in our daily lives, such as observe incidentally or just accidentally and which is followed by information sources, which has one essential categorization, known as internal and external search. Search taking place originally, internally, such as when past experiences of product purchases are used as the foundation for planning a recurrence of purchase of similar products. If consumer’s memory does not recall the product or understand the product to make decisions in purchasing, then search activities such as the external search is involved (Fodness & Murray 1989). Engel, Blackwell and Miniard (1995) search for information is shown in figure 1.
Figure 1. Search for Information (Engel et al., 1995) Search
Need Recognition
Internal Search
External Search
Environmental Influences
Individual Differences
Memory
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Pre- Purchase Behavior
The process in which consumers’ go through before purchasing a product or services, for consumer to reduce the risk of buying unsatisfied product they go for information search, so he or she makes the right decision before purchasing the product he or she wants. In addition, the information gathered by consumers can vary, such as product brands, product variations, product qualities and product alternatives.
As stated by the American Marketing Association’s, a brand which is known as a symbol, logo, term, design, name or a product and services that can be differentiated from other competitors. When a marketer creates a new logo, name , symbol or product and
services, this means a brand is created (Keller, 2003) mentioned that when a marketer makes a new name, logo, or symbol for a new product, this means a brand is made, taking 2017
Summer Universiade as an example a new, souvenir is created for the mega event. Unique branding such as souvenir from 2017 Summer Universiade can build a city image. A country’
city image, can effect on individuals attitudes towards a country’s products and services which can interest potential investment and travelers from other cities. It is a strategy for Summer Universiade to build its brand through souvenirs (Kotler & Gertner, 2002). In addition, souvenir from Summer Universiade comes in different variation, such as different type, color, and design; in this case, product variation is a representative of products, which is referred to the souvenir. Consumers can have more choices of variation when searching for a new product, such as having different kind of souvenirs to choose from, that best fits their needs and want (Hirshburg & Siddique, 2014). Product quality can be defined by the physical characteristics such as its size, color, type of material used, which has some relationship with its packaging, pricing and advertising (Collins, 2003) this can explain consumers decision making when purchasing or seeking a souvenir. To reduce doubt when purchasing a souvenir, one important factor is to have a good built quality in the product, which can benefit
consumers in reducing their buying risk (Leingpibul, Allen Broyles & Kohli, 2013).
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Consumers tend to compare alternative when purchasing a product, so an evaluation criteria is created. With one or more criteria can help consumer with more choices to satisfy his or her needs alternatives (Luchs, Naylor, Irwin& Raghunathan, R. (2010). Taking this research as an example, when consumers decides to purchase a souvenir form 2017 Summer Universiade Games, he/she will have different choices, from Bravo Plush Doll, To Go Tumbler,
Universiade logo mug and many more (Taipei 2017 29th Summer Universiade, 2017). Now that the consumers have alternative product to choose from, he/she can choose the souvenir that satisfies them most.
Constraints on Sport Consumption Behavior
Constraints are differed in academic disciplines, in leisure realm, constraint is distinct as a factor that prohibits or prevents consumer from joining or enjoying leisure activity
(Jackson, 2000). The definition used in the study is appropriate for the present study since it is specifically associated with leisure involvement, assumed that sport souvenir purchasing is a crucial behavior of significance in this analysis, which is one of the type in leisure
involvement. Therefore, constraints are distinct as factors that prevent or constrain a people from joining or purchasing souvenir from a sporting event.
Trail et al. (2008), proposed a minor adjustment from the constraint model Crawford et al. (1991). The planned model consists of four dimensions, known as internal motivators, internal constraints, external motivators, and external constraints. The modified model is different from the constraints model that Crawford et al. (1991) theorized with three
constraint categories and no motives. Additionally, the fundamental constraints of Crawford et al. (1991) are external constraints, which is stated as environmental or social point of view that decrease or prevents an individual to participate or purchase sport, such as, lack of transportation, weather and cost. The two added motivator categories (internal and external) Kim &Trail (2010), internal motivators are distinct as internal psychological cognitions that
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motivate behavior such as, goals, role identities, values, needs, beliefs. External motivators are stated as environmental or social characteristics which are an interest to different behavior known as, feature preferences, the media, market demand variables, and promotions)
Consumer Decision Making
The most pervasive thoughts in consumer behavior research is that a choice process leads purchases. Various decision models have been reported in the marketing literature (for example, Engel & Blackwell, 1982).Consumer decision process stages were developed to provide a context for the thesis (Figure 2). This process integrates into six sets of processes which are: a.Stimulus process formation of individual beliefs about the souvenir passive information; b.Problem awareness which is a decision to undertake and consideration of situational constraints; c.Information required from external sources received after memory is managed in the function of the decision rule or evaluation process; d. The alternative chosen, is settled by using a decision rule or some evaluation process; e. Purchasing of products and;
f. Post-Purchase Behavior, Consumer gets brand preference only when that brand lives up to his expectation (Um & Crompton, 1990).Consumer decision process is shown in figure 2.
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Figure 2. Consumer Decision Process Stages
Information Acquisition for Pre-purchase Decisions
The search of information is determined by an approaching decision to purchase is identified as a pre-purchase search. Pre-purchase search can be associated with different search behavior, such as ongoing search, where information acquisition happens on a regular routine, regardless of irregular purchase needs (Engel et al., 1995; Murray, 1991). The main motivation following pre-purchase search is the essential requirement to make greater
purchasing decisions. Correspondingly, ongoing search may be motivated by a need to create a knowledge foundation that may be used in upcoming decision making (Engel, et. al., 1995).
Stimulus
Purchase
Evaluation of Alternatives Information Search Problem Awareness
Marketing/ads and editorial information sources
utilization in regard to the purchase of Universiade souvenir
Post-Purchase Behavior
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Consumers active in an ongoing search seem likely to possess greater amounts of decision-relevant information in memory, thereby lowering the amount of pre-purchase search necessary for decision making.
The research about sport consumption and information is relatively limited and in many instances emanates from disciplines beyond sport, although, as stated by Pitts, Fielding, and Miller (1994), Shoham and Kahle (1996), and Shilbury and Westerbeek (1998), sport consumption behavior is being given increasing attention in the sport-marketing literature.
Sport marketing agencies and organizations engage in this practice by developing marketing communication and editorial information in the belief that these types of sport-related communications are an important element of the sport consumer's pre-purchase decision process. It should follow, then that an area of specific significance to sport marketers is the knowledge of the pre-purchase information acquisition process acquired by sport customers.
However, the factors that drive information preferences and use levels have largely gone uninvestigated by sport marketing researchers.
Risk and Consumer Purchase decision
Previous research has indicated that perceptions of risk can be extended beyond the product itself to include the act of obtaining it (shopping) (Engel, & Blackwell, 1982).
According to some research findings, the superior degree of perceived risk is related with the purchase, the superior the consumer’s tendency to seek pre-purchase information about the product (Walters & Bergiel, 1989; Dowling & Staelin, 1994; Engel et al., 1995; Pope et al., 1999). Moreover, it has been suggested that the risk associated with the purchase and consumption of services is greater than that perceived for the purchase and consumption of goods (Quintal & Soutar, 2010). In relation to this study, product offerings in the sport events reflect both the output of specific manufactured products as well as programs and services.
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Information Source Utilization
Murray (1991) indicated that there were four information sources used in the consumer information acquisition process. They are: a. mass media or marketing sources; b. experience or personal direct and experience; c. advice of social sources, including friends, families, significant others, and acquaintances; and d. editorial or neutral sources. Murray (1991) also pointed out that information obtained from people with previous service or product
experience was personal and evaluative, and reduced the prospective consumer's uncertainty by means of vicarious learning and approximated direct experience with the product.
(Sherrell, et. al., 2015) suggested that information sources were more important for consumers in the purchase of experience type products than non-experience products.
Involvement as a Factor of Pre-purchase Decisions
Participation and involvement reflects a stronger motivation in the form of high-perceived relevance personally in service or product in a particular setting, and it also takes the form of a variety ranging from low to high. Celsi and Olson (1988) indicated that
involvement would become initiated and experienced when essential personal individualities such as self-concept, needs and values, were opposed with suitable marketing stimuli within a given situation. Moreover, it appears to purpose in a comparable way across cultures, though the particular products and modes of expression will vary.
Attitude toward Information in Pre-purchase Decisions
An analysis of consumer attitudes can produce both diagnostic and predictive benefits.
Recognizing interested market sectors, analyzing current and possible marketing activities, and predicting future behaviors are some of the key in which attitudes can assist marketing
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decision making. Attitudes are distinct as general assessment and it can vary among several properties, including, confidence, resistance, extremity, persistence, and valence.
2.3 Purchasing intention
According to Mullen and Johnson (2013) Purchasing intention is the planning of buying or the use of products. Intention delivers a connection between consumers' such as their responses to products, acquisition or use of the products. Therefore, intention is an alternate measurement to purchase behavior. Intention has been regarded as an action, these actions are often evaluated differently from the mental states such as one’s knowledge and beliefs.
Intentions normally position problems for the consumers and the consumers’ needs to establish a way to achieve it (Cohen & Levesque, 1990). Moreover, it has been used as an alternative extent to purchase behavior. The positive result of the consumer’s internal process will mostly respond to the products and will lead it to buy the actual product. In addition, many studies in tourism have studied tourism purchasing behavior, however, there is no studies that examine the relationship between intention to purchasing souvenir and attitude
Intentions normally position problems for the consumers and the consumers’ needs to establish a way to achieve it (Cohen & Levesque, 1990). Moreover, it has been used as an alternative extent to purchase behavior. The positive result of the consumer’s internal process will mostly respond to the products and will lead it to buy the actual product. In addition, many studies in tourism have studied tourism purchasing behavior, however, there is no studies that examine the relationship between intention to purchasing souvenir and attitude