LITERATURE REVIEW - 以台灣小學生為例比較翻轉教室與傳統教學教室學生的學習態度及成效

In this study, blended learning via multimedia resources and flipped classroom teaching method would be the focus to EFL learners in elementary school to probe their effectiveness. There are seven aspects discussed in this chapter. First, the advantages about cooperative learning and the way how leaners learn with each other was analyzed. Second, we discuss about the multimedia resources through blended learning and how can it be beneficial to leaners, and the theory related to how we absorb and memorize knowledge was mentioned. Third, we start mention about the

function of FC and how can they affect the learning process of learners. Fourth, multiple study has shown the positive result and provides some evidence how FC help learners achieve and raise their learning motivation and expand their learning content. Fifth, it comes to the role of teachers and how can they guide instead of sage learners absorb knowledge. Sixth, we continue discuss about after teachers recognize their role, what is the suitable materials for FC. Then, the last part, we discuss about some researches that think FC is not that useful and positive due to the result of their study, and how can we absorb their experience and attempt to create a more successful FC model.

Interpersonal and Cooperative Learning

The research about cooperative learning has lots of positive outcomes. Comparing students learning in either individual or competitive environments, they exhibited better social skills and experience. Besides, they perform higher self-esteem, that leads to more positive learning attitudes

and abundant learning experience related to the target area (Johnson, D. W.; Johnson, R. T.; Smith, 1998). After several research using survey data to analyze students’ learning attitudes toward cooperative learning activities in chemistry class, the students viewed the group tasks as a positive force in their learning experience, besides, they also thought that it was an attempt to attend and experience as they were in a community during the learning process (Felder & Brent, 2007; Towns, 2000; Fields, 2000).

Besides, to accomplish the effect about cooperative learning, there are several elements as followed: first, learners should have positive interdependence to finish individual study in advance then all the team members can learn and discuss the information together. Second, learners should realize the appropriate use of collaborative skills such as practice about trust-building,

communication, discussion making, and dealing with conflicts. Last, the group processing is very important. There are specific goals that learners need to achieve together, besides, learners will cultivate the capability brainstorming together to finish the task more efficiently. As the description that mentioned above, we realize that the ability that students will communicate with peer well can be beneficial to learners and it is also the key element to make the cooperative learning successful, as Felder et al. (2007) mentioned that interpersonal learning is the ability that learners need to learn and use in their cooperative learning classroom.

Interpersonal learning includes students who interact with each other and the educator (Gardner, 2011; Kagan, S., & Kagan, M., 2014). Kagan, S., & Kagan, M. (2014) also mentioned

that interpersonal intelligence focuses on the relationships between the students and the teachers about interacting with each other. Gardner (2011) supplemented this theory by explaining and expressing interactive relationships in the classroom to several forms, such as group discussion, teamwork, role-play, and competing.

Besides, Evseeva and Solozhenko (2015) and Chapman (2014) both defined interpersonal learning as the perceptive and empathetic that learners understanding how to relate to another person through emotions and feelings. Such as teachers, therapists, human resource professionals, counselors, doctors, and clergy leaders are some occupations that need to use interpersonal

intelligence in their jobs (Chapman, 2014). According to Chapman (2014), the learners who know interpersonal well can perform well on these aspects such as communicate with others, doing cooperative activities, having teamwork and human contact, and interpreting human behavior.

Blended Learning through Multimedia Materials

Williams, Bland, and Christie (2008) define blended learning (BL) as a merge of traditional teacher-centered teaching (TCT) and distributed learning (DL), the pattern which means “an instructional model that educators, students can share the content in different locations." (p. 43).

The primary focus of DL is that the learning environment is designed to corresponded to different learning needs for students in different levels. This pedagogical model enables students learning in an interactive and collaborative environment, and most importantly, learners can learn at their own pace and the time is flexible (Graham, 2006; Saltzberg & Polyson, 1995). Also, Yen and Lee (2011)

claim that "BL in pedagogical thinking, combining the best parts of both online and face-to-face education, and it is potentially as the predominant teaching strategy in the future" (p. 138).

In Yen and Lee’s research, they observed that the primary benefit of using BL is about course flexibility. Students with varied learning styles can learn with this pedagogical model without the requirement of traditional course, and pacing preferences. Besides, according to Osguthorpe and Graham (2003), they mentioned the six major reasons that both educators and learners would attempt to apply BL in their courses.

There are six reasons why people apply BL system in their classroom: (1) pedagogical richness, (2) access to knowledge, (3) social used by IBM where learners go through three phases (Phase 1) online self-paced learning to acquire background information, (Phase 2) face to face learning lab focused on active learning and application experiences instead of lecture, and (Phase 3) online learning and support for transferring the learning to the workplace environment.

However, Honestly, there are a great number of BL model in the teaching system all over the world, with lots of BL models in existence, which would the most efficient or appropriate for both educators and learners in their country? According to Moskal, Dziuba, & Hartman (2013), they claim that the answer is surprising there is no singular or specific best model, and most institutions

can achieve success with nearly any of them. There is no “one size fits all” approach that is useful for all the students with different learning styles, background, and levels, therefore, to achieve this ambition, all we need is continuous effort. Therefore, in this research, the pedagogic model of BL is using multimedia materials which provided by the researcher. With the multimedia materials, learners can learn through their pace, and have the flexibility to learn wherever and whenever they

prefer. Then, it comes to the point that how can multimedia be beneficial to learners?

About the origin of multimedia, Omaggio (1979) conducted the first study for the influence on pictures related to reading comprehension with college freshmen who study in French. She found that pictures made a significantly improving on reading comprehension. Besides, Sydorenko (2010) cited that “Input in various modalities is now being used in language teaching because multiple modalities are believed to improve language acquisition.” This perception is supported by Paivio’s (2007) Dual Coding Theory (DCT), In, DCT it was revealed that language acts and imaging are two classes of implicit behavior.

The main idea of DCT is that humans have the potential to code encountered, in these two dependent systems linguistic (“verbal”) and nonverbal (images) systems. The most important assumption is that the two independent systems have the connections that can lead to better memory capabilities. Paivio and Begg (1981) also assumed that the two systems have connections to the sensory modality that was explained in Table 1 For instance, using video clips is an appropriate example combines linguistic and images systems together and it can make students absorb knowledge easier.

Table 1

The Two Systems That Serve Memory Quoted from Pavio & Begg (1981, p. 68) Sensory Modality Symbolic Systems

Verbal Nonverbal

Functions of Flipped Classroom

The function of FC classroom will assist students learning with the goal to complete the task or some discussion work. Besides, according to Roehl, Reddy & Shannon (2013), the use of CAI will be one kind of important tools for learners to absorb and learn the teaching content prior to class. It is a prove that technology can be beneficial to FC classroom, besides, there are several researches also mentioned that technology can be applied in part of the teaching procedure, the function of technology can provide the teaching materials before class, then students can learn with flexibility and fully-understanding, after that students will attend face-to-face classes , at that time they have already had some theoretical knowledge and background related to the lessons. It makes the interaction in FC classroom more efficient and fruitful because learners will have much more confidence on asking questions or even discussing the issues in deeper aspects with the teacher and classmates. In this way, students will gradually become more involved in the group activities in class, instead of learning from only teacher’s instruction and taking notes of only the explanations of theoretical material without further thinking (Evseeva & Solozhenko, 2015; Shyamlee & Phil, 2012; Talbert, 2014).

After discussing the function of FC in technology use, there is one primary theory for learners going through FC process that was called “The Flipped Learning Network” (TFLN). It mentioned that FC learning can lead learners to learn not only in group cooperation and discussion but also absorb knowledge individually with time and space flexibility. According to Estes et al. (2014), The

Flipped Learning Network (2014) defines flipped learning as learners learning process from the group-learning aspects to individual-learning aspects (p. 1).

In TFLN, learners would have much opportunities and time learning and realizing the basic concept of the materials or even brainstorming for constructing deeper knowledge prior to class, then in the FC classroom, while learners discussing together to deal with the task or challenges which were provided by the instructor or even thinking about the real world connections and applications— learners will be able to obtain deeper understanding or learning experience of the subject”. Furthermore, during class time, the educator guides students the way how to merge the concepts from each other and engage creativity in related to subject matter” (Flipped Learning Network, 2014, p.1). By helping students achieving TFLN in both group and individual aspects in meaningful ways using modern technologies, there will be the possibilities learners will increase the quality of the learning experience.

Benefits of the Flipped Classroom

The FC is defined as a pedagogical model that lecture and homework elements of the course are reversed (Bergmann & Sams, 2012). Besides, In the book “Flip Your Classroom: Reach Every Student in Every Class Every Day” The author Bergmann and Sam compared the amount of time which spent on learning activities between traditional classroom and FC. It showed that FC, learners spent much more time on practical activities, discussion, and group task instead of merely studying the theoretical material (75 minutes versus 35 minutes) (Evseeva & Solozhenko, 2015).

Due to the fact that when learners expose to FC frequently, the peer-to-peer task will lead learners acquire new information with each other, besides, during sharing and exchanging the knowledge, learners will improve their cognition of the subject and gain more information (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). Moreover, FC is beneficial to not only learners but also teachers. According to Muldrow (2013), she claimed that FC is a new approach to language instruction to both educators and learners. Moreover, she also mentioned that during applying technology into FC and transforming from the traditional to FC will need great adaptations to both the teacher and students.

The reason why the adaptions are required to both students and the instructor main is that instructors mist provide the related material through technology before class, then the evaluation for the material will be the primary challenge because it must be related to the teaching content, and has the room for expanding. After instructors provide the material, learners will have the ﬂexibility to study and absorb the information before entering the classroom. The challenge for leaners is that the individual explores and group discussion both play important roles in FC (Estes et al., 2014; The Flipped Learning Network, 2014). That means FC also require individual inquiry, collaborative

eﬀort, social interaction, reﬂection, and independent learning skills (Bergmann & Sams, 2012).

From learners’ aspect, English as the additional language, they would not only learn with deeper, more flexible, and interactive way, they also gain the social skills such as cooperate and discuss with others, interact with peers, and the method how to express their ideas precisely and

clearly. From the instructor’s perspective, FC can provide great opportunities to provide additional knowledge, solve misconceptions from learners and use more efficient teaching method in the classroom to clarify concepts and lead students make good use of the knowledge they learned. This can increase learner-instructor interaction and lead to more eﬀective learning (Reyna, 2015).

There is also another prove from Han (2015), he found that when leaners learn in FC, more time being spent on technology-related activities helped improve student speaking fluency,

pronunciation, and confidence as well as achieving all major skills. FC also provides learners with more time to process and absorb their learning before applying it in addition to allowing them to take a moment to look up definitions, find sources and information related to the topic if the

clarification was needed and if they need to review a particular topic because the videos are always available and the instructor is not, therefore, learners would be able to re-watch and refresh their memories (Kostka & Brinks, 2015).

The Role of Teacher as the Instructor

Then, it comes to the issue that teachers in FC are no longer the character of teaching, they are more likely to be the role of instructor tin order to lead learners absorb knowledge and guide them to learn efficiently, there is a modal provided by The University of Texas at Austin, one of the most presentative institution of FL, provides the example of what FC looks like in the university

classroom from both learner and instructor’s perspective, the related content was shown in Table 2.

Table 2

Both Learners and Instructor’s perspective for FC from the University of Texas at Austin

According to the model of the FC above, it leads to the importance of teachers’ role as the instructor, which not only provide the learning materials but also the assistance for individual needs.

Besides, Sebastian Gluzman also cited that teachers must keep in mind that applying FC as the teaching method is not primary about the delivery of the instruction related to the video. If the video which is boring to learners, and unluckily, a tedious lecture which is followed, eventually, learners’

learning experience will not be raised and enhanced. Therefore, teachers’ duty as the instructor is to active learners’ learning motivation and make the atmosphere of the classroom more vivid. Also mentioned in Strayer (2007), he suggests a conceptual framework of FC and claims that the learning environment in FC is influenced by the “extensive use of educational technology outside of class”

and “active learning during class time” (P.15)

In Zayapragassarazan & Kumar (2012), they mention four categories of ways that can achieve

Class

the active learning classroom, the four categories are as followed (a) individual activities, (b) paired activities, (c) informal small groups, and (d) cooperative student projects. These methods contain many learning activities such as conceptual mapping, brainstorming, collaborative writing,

cooperative learning, project-based learning, and peer sharing (Zayapragassarazan & Kumar, 2012).

Besides, active learning methods require students to utilize higher-order thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (Bonwell & Eison, 1991; Prensky, 2010).

Finding Suitable Learning Materials

It is very important for teachers find the suitable material for FC, which can be some resources from the internet platforms which have been already available, such as YouTube, websites, blogs, and Open Educational Resources (Missildine et al., 2013; Kostka & Brinks, 2015). The key is to identify suitable content and combine it into a sensible learning design. Activities were various, such as self-reviewed quizzes, discussion forums, blogs, or reﬂective journals, which will help learners to support and organize what they are learning and what they have learned.

Requiring learners to complete the setting goal before the FC can be challenging. This can be promoted such as giving a certiﬁcate of completion at the end of the pre-classwork or some reward that it may be attractive to them. Another strategy is ‘peer pressure’- informing participants that they will be classified to groups and a participant randomly selected to lead the group during the face-to-face session. Furthermore, locating FC requires constant monitoring and improvement all the time through the process of the courses. Before you announce your content to learners, you will

need to put in place a feedback mechanism such as a survey to measure students’ experience using the ﬂipped classroom.

The flipped classroom is a hybrid approach to learning, using technology to move the

classroom lecture to “homework” status and using class time for interactive learning and expressing and discussing the ideas with each other in groups. This approach in higher education usually involves faculty development of a video-recorded lecture (lecture capture) that is made available to students for viewing outside of the classroom at any time. Classroom time is spent in discussion, clarification, exercises, or other learning activities to enhance application of knowledge (Ronchetti, 2010).

Challenges and Misconceptions

One of the main limitations is that developing resources for ﬂipped classroom can be time-consuming, requiring careful planning and preparation. Besides, existing research has shown

conflicting views regarding student satisfaction with the flipped classroom method. Student surveys and

focus groups by Berrett (2012), Missildine et al. (2013) and Strayer (2012) found that some students still

preferred the traditional method over the flipped classroom method. Possible reasons cited for this

discrepancy in student attitudes towards flipped learning could be due to the diverse methods used to

flip the classroom in each study, on how student expectations were set, and on how coherent and

connected the online and face-to-face materials were for the students. Also, researchers have observed

that some students felt lost without a traditional lecture, and that some instructors were reluctant to

22 make the switch (Mangan, 2013).

Furthermore, in Oki’s study (2016) applying FC into content-based area to observe the effect of learners’ learning attitude and the academic performance. After the experiment, the qualitative results from the posttest shows that there is not positive influence that students attend in FC raise the learning ability compared to the ones who join TT classroom. Nevertheless, Oki still found out that the major reason about that is because participants are nor familiar with the content, then they are not capable of expressing their ideas in class. Therefore, the handout, achievement test and in-class practice may be necessary to evaluate students’ learning performance.

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

Research Design

This study explored both learners’ reaction and learning outcomes and teachers’ teaching experience in Flipped Classroom (FC) comparing to traditional teacher-centered classroom (TCT).

The subjects are the elementary students in Taiwan who are now in their second grade. An

experimental study was investigated. Data Analysis were executed on SPSS involving quantitative data which was collected from the pretests and protests. Besides, the qualitative data such as interview and open-ended questions in both pretests and posttests were also probed in order to

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