LITERATURE REVIEW - 尼加拉瓜和台灣咖啡業務經理之間的跨文化溝通應對模式

In order to serve the needs of this study, the following literature review presents definitions, concepts, theories and practices that help the researcher to explain the intercultural communication into an organization, differences that can result in difficulties and intercultural communication practices. The chapter is divided into the following sections: culture, intercultural communication, misunderstandings in intercultural communication, difficulties to intercultural communication and intercultural communication competence.

Culture

Daily, the word culture is often used depending on the situations and the different context given. In addition, the concept given to this word will depends on the level of understanding and knowledge of the speaker (Gudykunst & Kim, 1997). There are many definitions of culture written by scholars (Hofstede, 2001). Taking this into consideration, it is very difficult to give a definition of this word in just one paragraph.

As mentioned, the word culture is defined in many approaches and it results complicated to incorporate its numerous aspects. Citing some of the most commonly used ones, we could say first that is a summary of all learned behaviors in a society (Stephan & Stephan, 1996). Hofstede (2001) explains that culture is the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another. The definition mentioned before lead us to thing that people, since their childhood, learn culture from socializing with their peers. People learn behaviors from others that are in the same group and turns them into habits after some time (Samovar & Porter, 2004). In addition, going through different types of experiences can lead to people learn and relearn different types of cultures that are not related to the same cultural group.

In another context, culture can be defined as the collective beliefs, customs, attitudes, values and thoughts shared by individuals of a group that are used to understand each other. It is expressed by visible tools, otherwise it becomes invisible to individuals (Barnett & Lee, 2003). A common

factor in culture is that people usually share the same interpretation of symbols, which are expressions of visible tools previously referred, that can be either verbal and nonverbal forms of language (Jandt, 2004).

There are some invisible aspects of culture that can be noticed depending on how people behave. Beliefs, values and norms can be learned through parents, peers, teachers or institutions (Gudykunst & Kim, 1997). Also, individuals can learn about them through history, social media, proverbs, myths, folktales, art and legends (Samovar & Porter, 2004). These are the key aspects of a culture reflected in our behavior, expressed by symbolic and visual processes. Culture directly affects our behavior. Our beliefs, norms and values are instructions for individuals to behave in a socially accepted manner (Brislin, 2001).

Culture has many definitions as I mentioned previously, but also layers. The first important layer, formed by expressions, behavior or language, is visible externally. There are different reasons and ways to interpret these expressions depending on the motives from people with different cultural backgrounds. The next important layer consists of values and norms that are shared by individuals of the same culture.

Culture and communication work simultaneously, it results impossible to draw a line between these two factors as they are impossible to separate. The relationship between communication and culture usually indicates an opening for intercultural communication research (Samovar & Porter, 2003). This relation between these two factors is correlative, culture reflects communication and communication is shaped by culture (Chen & Starosta, 1998.)

Intercultural Communication

Intercultural communication has been part of the human interaction due to the fact of the different languages that exist in the world but the studies and investigations about this topic is relatively modern originated from the development of international trading activities. As part of globalization, the creation of different ways to develop communication such as the internet, cellphones and such technology, people from different cultural backgrounds have become closer

and can be informed about other news in real time that happen all around the world (Jandt, 2004).

A definition of intercultural communication explains that the participants in the communication perceive themselves different in aspects such as language and cultural background.

The definition places intercultural communication next to other concepts such as interethnic, interracial, and intergroup communication (Kim, 2007). Different type of variables can be pointed out like sign systems and cultural behaviors, playing an important role in human interaction, that make us realize that intercultural communication cannot be limited to geographical differences or verbal interaction (Fall et al., 2013).

Edward T. Hall introduced the concept of intercultural communication on his book “The Silent Language” back in 1959, as the first reference of this type of reciprocal action. As a result, he is considered the founder of intercultural communication. The definition published in his book basically infers that culture is communication (Neuliep, 2014).

Intercultural communication is the outcome of the diverse world on where we live nowadays and the interaction between individuals from different cultural backgrounds comes in hand to develop successful communities, international business cooperation and reduce difficulties. Unity is impossible without communication and only when culturally diverse people interact they can create harmony. At this point, intercultural communication is a necessity (Neuliep, 2014).

Intercultural communication implicates interaction between individuals with different cultural backgrounds and attitudes, enough to change the communication characteristics. It involves two or more people from notably different cultures (Samovar & Porter, 2004).

Intercultural communication compromise individuals working towards a successful channel of communication inadvertent of their inequality. Also, people preserve characteristics of their own culture when it happens (Lustig & Koester, 2006). When there is an interaction between two people from different cultural backgrounds, their own personalities and interpersonal relationship styles, a third culture can be created, leaving their on cultures intact but only until these two people can overcome the differences between them and are willing and motivated to adapt the way they communicate. In some other cases individuals just lead their intentions on learning and adjusting to a new culture (Dodd, 1998). To reach a new social adaptation, meaningful experiences of

intercultural communication are extremely important for a person with an original cultural identity (Kim, 2007).

The first step to develop and achieve a successful communication within different cultural backgrounds is the appropriation of a source of knowledge about other cultures to increase cultural awareness. It is imperative to learn about fundamental characteristics of the other individual whom we are interacting with, such as basic aspects that could include history, religion, political system, common values and manners (Samovar et al., 2013). Failing to follow this step will probably lead to frustrations, anger and difficulties in establishing a successful relationship (Dodd, 1998).

The final objective of intercultural practices is to obtain a true intercultural communication, every individual is able to share a common interest with another, where one is ambitious to give and the other to take in equivalent manner (Kim, 2007). This balanced state of intercultural communication can only be achieved by establishing a multicultural awareness with universal values (Baraldi, 2006).

Misunderstandings in Intercultural Communication

Every group if individuals who share the same cultural background behaves and feels in a different way. There are significant differences between them, not only in language, but also in terms of culture, mentality, habits, customs, beliefs and more. The interaction between these people from different cultural backgrounds contribute to an extensive number of positive results, for example learning about new customs or expand our horizons, or negative outcomes, that can create different type of conflicts. Most of them are caused by misunderstandings in communication (Jandt, 2004).

The first layer of any intercultural communication process is represented by the basic mean of any intercultural relation, the language. A decent language proficiency is an important requirement for an easy course of business dealing, however, it does not ensure the success of the negotiation that is carried (Jandt, 2004).

The second layer is often called communication etiquette. It is associated with rituals and conventions. There is no guarantee of a successful intercultural communication if the participants, beside mastering the language in which the communication will be spoken, do not know, respect or follow the appropriate rules of communication etiquette from the other culture and its patterns (Jandt, 2004).

Communication between two individuals often occurs in a foreign language for one of the parties, and will be based on the ability to understand, interpret and express, different factors such as feelings, thoughts, concepts, opinions and facts, during a verbal and non-verbal interaction in the appropriate range of societal and cultural context depending on the needs. Communication in two different languages also requires skills such as negotiation and intercultural understanding. It is a wide problem that show us that intercultural misunderstandings are not only a matter of scholastic studies and that it is also considered by international businesses (Chaney et al., 2007).

In the field of intercultural communication, there is wide variety of causes of difficulties. The intensity and importance of the difficulty depends on how big is the difference between two cultures. For that reason, managers and business owners who want to start operations abroad should learn as much information as possible before establishing any communication patter about the other cultural information to avoid any undesirable situations or cultural shock (Baraldi, 2006).

Difficulties to Intercultural Communication

In the highly competitive global economy we live now, there are often cross-border movements from employees that results into a growing diversity in the working environment. As a result, breakdowns in communication occur due to cultural differences. That is definitely costly to the multinational businesses in terms of revenue, workplace relations and customer interaction, as well as the competitive advantage (Teo, 2011).

Intercultural communication difficulties can arise as a result of a biological phenomenon that can include factors such as cognitive decision-making, physiological arousal and emotional activation linked with our brain process of conflict resolution (Berns & Atran, 2012).

Misunderstanding is hard to avoid between users of low-high context communication (Guirdham, 1999). A list of common intercultural communication difficulties has been developed. These barriers are as follow:

High anxiety

The feeling of anxiety can result from not knowing what to expect or do about certain situations, so the individual will focus on this feeling and will not be entirely focus in the communication. It is conventional for an individual to experience anxiety on the first days of a new communication interaction with other cultures, as well as feeling out of place. For this reason, they will pay attention to this feeling and omit other important aspects in the communication process and appear awkward to the counterpart (Jandt, 2004).

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism is the negative judge of another person’s culture based on the standards of one’s own culture. It is the feeling of cultural superiority. Every culture has differences in many aspects. The key is trying to understand the basic aspects of other people culture and the way they behave based on these aspects before we can judge them. The exclusion of the importance and knowledge of other cultures blocks communication and the interrelation of new skills and ideas between people (Jandt, 2004).

Ethnocentrism can create a negative effect in societies due to individuals not obeying the rules, norms and values of other cultures by consider them inferior. Is counter-productive when it blinds a culture to the contribution of other cultural groups in exchange and can lead to conflict and aggression. Ethnocentrism can also be difficult across cultures when it leads to social isolation, discrimination and compulsion of one culture by another (Kendall, 2001).

Stereotypes and prejudice

Stereotypes and prejudice create a prejudicial barrier to intercultural communication. The word stereotype refers to individuals that might create a positive or negative judgement about others based on any perceived behavior, verbal or non-verbal, in the other hand, prejudice infers

to the irrational suspicion or hatred of a particular cultural group. They are both connected because they refer to making judgements about people based on their cultural background (Jandt, 2004).

Prejudgment is the result of stereotyping. In a communication context, negative feelings and attitudes by those who prejudge or stereotype are showed through intimidating humor, speech that claim dominance of one group over the other and group labels. It leads to a non-flexible and wrong view of certain behaviors as correct or not. This type of thinking generates a distressing communication challenge. (Alberts et. al., 2010).

Assuming similarity instead of difference

When an individual has no information about a new culture, he will assume that there are no important differences between two culturally different groups. These differences can be really important in the communication interaction. Each culture might have some similarities as well as remarkable differences. The display of emotions is one factor in a communication and it varies depending of each culture. It is assumed that this factor is the same in each culture, it can lead to the feeling that the other part lacks of emotions or a display of inappropriate emotions. The opposite can be a barrier too. Cultures also share some behaviors in common, and assuming that there are only differences in between two different cultures can lead to not recognizing similar important things (Jandt, 2004).

Cultural differences are part of any interaction, even though some cultures may value the same things as another culture. It is incorrect to assume that people with different cultural backgrounds have remarkable and significant differences and assume that similar cultures can act and think alike. It can be an obstacle to assume that people are different just because of their cultural background. It is a true reflection that all human beings share common experiences, meanwhile there are some notable differences. The key to achieve an understanding that people have resemblances and differences is not to oppress the function of culture as an important factor in communication but to understand that in the face of these cultural differences, we are all humans.

When engage into an intercultural communication, it is imperative for both parts to explore the other person’s cultural background and values before one can recognize and define similarities and differences (Beebe et al., 2011).

Different communication codes

Different people speak different languages, and interacting with people from different nationalities represent a distressing communication challenge. Sometimes, even when the two parts speak a common language between them, due to cultural differences, the meaning of the words or gestures may have unsimilar value. Hence, is important to understand various cultures during the communication process in order to communicate effectively and properly across cultures (Beebe et al., 2011).

Intercultural Communication Competence

The interaction between different cultures and the influence that this interaction has on communication bring forward the question on how to manage these differences. The solution to the question and the success of this interaction relies on the concept known as intercultural competence. One of the key research subjects in the intercultural communication research is intercultural competence. All data gathered, analyzed, processed and published, however, come with some irregularities (Chen & Starosta, 1998).

There is a large amount of studies since intercultural competence has been the subject of study of different disciplines but the results of them are not comparable due to the absence of common nomenclature. At first, the intercultural competence research was conducted to analyses problems such as overseas foreign bankruptcy, prediction on foreign success, choosing the suitable employees and developing a successful intercultural training. This practical research enriches the knowledge about intercultural experience but was not really focused on theory development. Later on, and with the use of different approaches, methods and conceptualizations to study intercultural communication competence conduct to the diffusion of the research tradition (Lustin & Koester, 2006).

The research of a same subject through a variety of perspectives and within different disciplines led to a diversity of concepts of intercultural communication competence. The denomination competence was gathered from sociolinguistics from whom it was taken over as an

approved theoretical concept by intercultural communication scholars. These days, the concept of competence is more frequently used because it encloses the relevance of both effectiveness and appropriateness for the successful results in intercultural cooperation (Bradford et al., 2000).

Nowadays, two key dimensions of intercultural communication competence are appropriateness and effectiveness (Bradford et al., 2000). The definitions of intercultural communication competence usually are based on these two factors. One of the most common definitions of intercultural communication competence cites that is the ability to effectively and appropriately execute communication behaviors to obtain a desired result in a specific environment (Chen & Starosta, 1998).

Effectiveness refers to the ability to obtain a positive result between an intercultural interaction. It is related with the individual satisfaction of an individual achieving a goal in specific.

Appropriateness is related to doing it respecting the contextual factors. It is reached by being polite by trying to evade the violation of any norm of interaction. The nature of the relationship between the parts involved in the communication behavior is absolutely important to determine what is considered appropriate and what is not (Imahori & Lanigan, 2001).

Although both of them are significant to understand intercultural communication competence, the point of view from the researchers can change towards effectiveness and appropriateness. For instance, recognize outcome-focused approach from message-focused approach. The first one is related to the cultural adaptation with a priority on effectiveness dimension. On the second approach, the perception of effectiveness as competent makes it unnecessary. The skills in the communication process are the only relevant factor for it (Imahori

& Lanigan, 2001).

The principles for appropriate and effective communication behavior are obtain from the cultural backgrounds of the people involved, becoming two extensive categories to describe intercultural communication competence and this is the reason why an intercultural communication is more challenging. The parameters of appropriateness and effectiveness differ in a multicultural environment. Consequently, being a person with intercultural appropriate and effective skills requires different alternatives of operation and accommodation of communication

15 behavior (Lustig & Koester, 2006).

Apart from appropriateness and effectiveness, another key factors that can be mentioned in the topic of intercultural communication competence are knowledge, skills and attitudes. The correct attitude, effective and operational knowledge and required skillset can lead to competence (Bennett & Bennett 2004).

The ability of a person to understand a message when there is a communication in an unusual environment is a cognitive component. The emotional capacity to face the challenges of this unusual environment in the communication is an affective component. The combination of the two previously mentioned components trough behavior is called operational component. These three components interact so that comprehensive knowledge leads to the proper attitude which together increment the possibility of skilled performance (Kim, 2001).

Cultural and communicational patterns are different and depend on the type of culture, as well as the construction of competence. What might be considered competent in one culture does not significantly point out the same results in a different culture. It has been proved that intercultural communication scholars have a better capacity to recognize the important of context than interpersonal communication researchers (Lustig & Koester, 2006). What might be perceived as competent communication in Taiwan cannot be applied to some situations in Nicaragua, for example. Situational factors cannot be ignored in the communication. Interaction models between person and situation are suggested to avoid a criticized international communication competence because of omitting the situational context. The importance of situational context proposes also that intercultural communication skills cannot be applied in one context and into a different one because the evaluation of these skills depends on the task and the interaction of the cultures of the

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