This chapter introduces literature that serves as theoretical foundation in this study. In this section, there will be the existing definition of meaning of work, the religious and non-religious beliefs and the constructivist paradigm on the context of meaning of work underlying the cultures, traditions, beliefs and social norms factors.
Meaning of work
Globalization and greater diversity in populations are various and unique, nowadays, with our technology and tools, we tend to connect with each other more easily, this lowered the factors that once, has been separating cultures internationally and domestically. Culture has been defined by many authors, but within a constructivist perspective, culture is understood as the product of social constructions (Baron 1992; Bowditch & Buono1993; Nikomo 1997). Culture serves as a crucial aspect that shapes and guides the thoughts, actions, and practices that are shaped by individual perspective. Similarly, the aspect of culture allows the learning of the beliefs, attitudes, and values of the society, which is said, can hold the basis for actions and judgement (Komin, 1990).
According to Carpenter-Song et al. (2007), culture is a dynamic relational process of shared meanings that originate in the interactions between individuals. In this view, culture involves an ongoing process of transmitting and using knowledge that depends on dynamics both within communities and between communities and institutions of the larger society, as like global networks.
Lainema (2008) states that perspective of the individuals’ is amongst an aspect of the constructivist paradigm, which allows the comprehension that symbolism, culture orientation and perspectives of the user tends to influence the organizational behaviour. Recognition of the cultural processes in an organization offers an opportunity to question current practices and can lead to change (Gray & Thomas, 2006). In this sense, a culturally diverse context encompasses diversity that can assume many forms in society—such as age, gender, sexual orientation, beliefs or socioeconomic status—and is not limited to race and ethnicity.
Cultural competence in a constructivist paradigm that is oriented toward critical, reflective practice can help us develop knowledge about the role of meaning of work and lead to the results that is the effects of those unforeseen factors. Budd (2011) & Rosso et al., (2010) suggests that the notion of meaning of work alters in the difference of culture. Yet, the question of what is meaning
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of work has been answered in multiple renditions. Amongst many definitions of meaning of work, one suggests that it reflects on what is the reason behind working. In a clearer understanding, meaning of work can be demarcated as the perception of 'why' do people work. This can encompass the motives (personal and non-personal), and catalysts (culture, belief, and tradition) as acquired from the study. Focusing on processes highlights the hybrid, dynamic, flexible, and complex nature of culture. It takes several individual and social processes to define, redefine, negotiate, and manage the cultural identity of an individual or of a group (Gray & Thomas, 2006).
In the terminologies reflected by the study of (Baron 1992; Nikomo & Junior 1997;
Bowditch& Buono 1993), culture and tradition are factors of social construct that tends to derive from the societal learning. The definition of culture, as according to Komin (1990) is reflected via individual perspective, thus, individual reflection towards the social construct tends to validate the comprehension of how learning is posited. A unique trait identified by Bendassolli & Tateo (2017) was that, culture is transmittable. In other words, the notion of culture can be shared, revised, and transmitted, endowing the accurate meaning of work.
Revising the relationship between person and culture can further signify the cultural phenomenon when developed in a collectivist culture. By creating meaning through constructivism, it is, therefore, relevant that culture and beliefs are taken into consideration in studying 'meaning' that reflects on working. This correlates with the study’s intent in understanding the behaviour and culture of meaning of work. Similarly, as insinuated that the transfer of culture and meaning making perspective are significant in the context of collectivist culture, the meaning of work can, therefore, also reflect cultural transmission in the same way.
Constructivist Paradigm
The theory of constructivist paradigm can be ascribed as a process - upon which humans construct their relationships with the societal and environmental factors. In simple words, comprehending environmental factors through perceptions. Based on the study by Lainema (2008), it states that perspective is a determinant of a constructivist paradigm, which allows the comprehension and an understanding that symbolism, culture orientation and perspectives of the user tends to influence meaning. Meaning making under constructivism paradigm, can be understanding from several aspects from the way people doing, thinking, behaviors, social norms,
traditions, beliefs to personal’ or groups’ perspectives, which together compile up and lays down as a strong based of the constructive foundation under the meaning of working.
Considering that the meaning-making perspective is a social construct, the individual tends to define a specific meaning based on their construct of subjective comprehension of a phenomenon (Lainema, 2008). A constructivist paradigm asserts that the notion of learning and comprehension is rather a constructing process, whereby, individual subjects have a unique perception of objective reality (Allen, 1994). The notion of constructivist paradigm is closely associated with the social construction of reality, being based on findings that concur, construct and reconstruct the understanding of a phenomenon. Earlier, research approached by Berger & Luckman (1996) conceded that the social construction of reality is mended and tailored according to existing societal rules, that tends to influence an individual externally. Therefore, impacting the definition of distinctive meanings. Thus, the interpretation or meaning of a distinctive factor is constructed via essential elements like culture and organization (Bowditch & Buono, 1992). This creates a distinctive perceived scenario that reflects upon their learning and understanding of working culture.
Constructivist paradigm, based their foundation structure with reality on the idea and framework of that, human being is constructed collectively, and the best we can do is to interpret in a more or less shifting social, cultural, or temporal context. Constructivism focuses on meaning making and the constructing of social and psychological worlds through individual, cognitive processes. Thus, meaning is constructed in a social, historical, and cultural context, through action and discourse in which people form relationships and community (Young & Collin, 2004). A fundamental goal of constructivist assessment is to assist peoples in understanding personal patterns of meaning, or how one makes sense of life experiences over time (Peavy, 1996). One of the basic tenets of this approach to assessment is that events, behaviors, and attitudes can only be understood in relation to their context (Neimeyer 1993; Savickas 1993). Thus, in constructivist assessment, connections are made between personal’ experiences and systems of influence such as important and interpersonal relationships (Goldman, 1990, 1992).
According to Baumers’ study, the constructivist framework is appropriate and reasonable in a way to analyze the rapid dynamics of crosscutting cultural recreations, language crossings, contextualized constructions of communities, shifting, transnational, multiple or minimal selves or identities (Baumers, 2011). Moreover, as a moral philosophy, constructivism is explicitly opposed to any concept of cultural rights for specific groups. It ends up in a self-contradictory criticism of
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all normative notions of individual autonomy. Similarly, the theory of meaning making perspective can be ascribed as a constructing - a meaning making societal individual tends to transform themselves and construct the meanings, validating their lived experience in unique contexts. That being said, the process of meaning making and socialization requires an individual to be engaged and belong to the objective world. According to Baron (1992), the concept of socialization can allow an individual to be actively participate in the social process, thus, allowing themselves to immerse in the presence situation factors, further, integrating the subjective reality. This associates with the earlier definition of constructivist paradigm, referred by (Allen, 1994). However, succeeding research in meaning of work have alluded that the constructive perspective of meaning making can differ, based on how social reality are constructed and mended in individual mind-set (Berger &
Luckman, 1996).
The utilization of a constructivist paradigm is however, not limited to defining the meaning of work. Research study by Steenkamp & Basso (2012), modified the notion of meaning of work and portrayed it as a meaningfulness at work. The research emphasized on a constructivist paradigm, assessing factors like values, ethics, spirituality, culture, and leadership that defined the meaningfulness at work. The research conceptualizes the psychological space of the workplace, insinuating how and why do workplace embrace meaning. Similarly, the paradigm of constructivism has been implemented by Comin & Pauli (2018) in the context of organizational socialization (the perspective of migrant workers). The research by Comin & Pauli (2018) concluded that socialization would play a prime role in defining the true meaning making perspective of migrant workers.
Similarly, noted as the concept of work, the research by Singh (2013), brings forward an understanding that work-life balance can formulate diversity in the understanding of meaning. The desire for work-life balance tends to bring shift to the meaning of work. Different in cultures lead to a different in value towards the roles of their works and life balances, example on such, as in Europe countries compare to Far east, Europeans tend to have a precise hours of clocking-out-time or less time working hours than Asian’ countries, they would spend time with their families or relatives more and on an average, a full-time employee in Europe works 34.3 hours per week, which is far less than most of the Asia’s countries such as Japanese, Korean, or Thailand, which on average would be 40 plus hours per week. Furthermore, the productivity and efficient remains still, with the spending time of works is much different (Singh, 2013).
In that context, the research by Berger & Luckman (1966) concedes that the process of socialization factor, and external factors like culture and organizational behaviour allows the
construction of reality, eventually influencing the perspective towards making meaning. Perceiving constructivism, it is therefore relevant that culture and beliefs are taken in consideration in studying
‘meaning’. That help shapes the factors create what is the meaning of working in particular with the chosen society and cultures. This correlates with the study’s intent in understanding the behaviour and culture of the Thai meaning of work. In the context of working and meaning behind, the process of socialization, the organizational behavior-values, cultures and beliefs can be significant in the consideration of assessing the meaning of work.
Cultural beliefs in Thai aspects
The cultural belief in Thai peoples aspects from their perspective is the view point of Thai people within the workforce. Typically, a common saying among Thai people are, “Cha cha dai pla lem ngam”, which means to do something slowly and make sure to have a beautiful big knife. What does this imply? It implies that the belief of Thai individuals is engaged in developing culture and belief based on working slowly. The belief of the Thai individuals wish to have put effort in what they do, despite requiring extensive time. However, it can also be positioned as Thai individuals adopt any behaviour very slowly. This refers to the mindset of doing things in no rush and to always be careful and have a backup plan. Thai people working style habits is very flexible, and easily adapted to the situation, they don’t find the sticking through the end of the rules really matters, or they find its more useful to keep adjusting until the work has done. Somewhere, the employee habits are also easily influenced with this mentality. That said, employee belief and the understanding of work can imply a longer awaited development and a stringent working environment to develop their employment mentality.
This perspective of Thai people is also held differently to how they view each other. As coworkers, they view each other as colleagues but superiors are not. They are treated as controllers and thus it is expected of them to treat superiors with a polite and subtle indication of their own lower position and this concept is regarded as 'superior-inferior' regarding the employees and those lower on the hierarchical ladder as inferior to the superiors. The understanding of superiority vs.
inferiority suggests that Thai employee have a highly-controlled environment. Their meaning of work establishes as respecting the superiors and following order. Thus, the inferior group of individuals are rather inclined towards the personal innovation and development. This breeds a sense of loathing for the upper hierarchy but also it is held as a symbol and aspiration for those below to reach and pine for that very same position.
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Thailand’s society appears the word ‘Karma’, is a fundamental part of the Thai culture and is seen rather often in both the workplace and society as a whole. This is inherited from the strong cultural influences of the Chinese and the Brahminic influences from India and the mix of the two strong Buddhist cultures is prevalent in Thai society (Winzer, Samutachak & Gray, 2018). This is strongly represented in the “Ti Tum Ti Soong” which is prominent and is represented by the acceptance that some are born better and greater than others which is an attribute to karma. There is a strong belief in destiny and thus the inevitability of it and the impossibility to change it. Therefore, the boss and those in charge are destined for the role and it is believed that most positions are hereditary. This is seen in Thai society that a handful of those in power and those possessing the positions of influence are only from a selected few families. A key important feature of the Thai work environment is that there is a preservation of the atmosphere of order. Thus, friendliness is expected to dominate so long as status and hierarchy are accepted and recognized (Yano, 2019).
When emphasizing more about the context of Thai’s organization behavior, Culture is described as unique and known worldwide for its complexities and various norms. Thai culture is characterized by its large power distances and it is stated that superiors and subordinates are considered vastly varied and in their leagues. It is mentioned that subordinates are expected to do as they are told and not to question (Pimpa, 2012). Executives and those in charge are regarded as the top of the social hierarchy and are to be followed unquestioningly. It is expected by Thai society for inequality to be the norm, stating that power gaps are obvious and ever-present. In terms of Hofstede’s Dimensions of Uncertainty Avoidance, Thai society is very low on the level of tolerance towards uncertainty. Thus, to avoid any uncertainty there are dogmatic and draconian laws, rules, policies and regulations that are created and adopted.
It is also described that Thai men are stated to be the “Chang Tao Na” and women the “Chang Tao Lung”, the prior meaning; Front legs of the elephant. The latter is “the back legs of the elephant”
(Jirapornkul & Yolles, 2010). Thus, inequality in gender can be notable. It is shown that Thai employees are more often than not reliant and prefer individuals with strong leadership. Meaning, that within the workforce a strong leader can go far as the culture appears largely submissive to the upper hierarchy and those with high charisma and good qualities of leadership can make it far as well as find a lot of stability within and among their peers of the workforce. Cultural habits also denote that there is a large gender disparity within the workforce, with women typically viewed as support. Although this is slowly changing, that does not mistake the fact that a majority of Thai employees and management hold a certain bias (Poohongthong, Surat & Sutipan, 2014).
Religious beliefs
Religion is a set of beliefs that is passionately held by a group of people that is reflected in a world view and in expected beliefs and actions or can be described as a set of beliefs of the world and the people in it, about how they came into being, and what their purpose in life. Religion has always played a crucial role in the meaning of work. Religious and non-religious individual’s perspective towards the meaning of work varies, as referenced by Gebert et al., (2013). The study shows that religion can affect existential psychology, positive psychology and therefore acts as an outward motivation for the individual on a spiritual level. On the other hand, non-religious perspectives determine the individuals' primarily materialistic motivations. The two sides both motivated differently, and religion plays a crucial part in Thai culture. The belief in karma and the act of good to lead to a better afterlife is integral. The aspects of Karma, life, death, rebirth and good deeds carrying forward play a strong role in Thailand society. An individual is very critical of the importance of fate and the circumstances of their being. This affects the performance of an individual in work as well, as it is reflected by their behavior (The Buddhist Centre, 2019).
One central belief of Buddhism is often referred to as reincarnation -- the concept that people are reborn after dying. In fact, most individuals go through many cycles of birth, living, death and rebirth. Buddhism is a philosophy of life expounded by Buddha ("Buddha" means "enlightened one"
or ‘Awakened One’). Buddhists seek to reach a state of nirvana, following the path of the Buddha, which means the cycle of rebirth ends and the finished point of the process of sufferings, that associated with rebirths and re-deaths come to an end. As described with greater details, Buddhists possess a lot of principles, where it helps to guide, govern and structure the people in religious society. Needless to say, that mostly the Buddhism principles become their social norms, where people would tend to keep and follow, and those who aren’t will be perceived as ‘unrespectful one’
or less in social acceptance and group united.
Buddhism principles consists of many principles beliefs, where it was believed to be a guideline as a structure for how to live a good life and behave in a morally good way and this will allow them to reach enlightenment, which is what all Buddhists attempt to achieve in their lifetime.
The principle beliefs can be example as such a ‘Four sublime states of mind’ or as a guidelines to clarity and pureness of life or ‘The six directions to respect’ as an order of people who should be respected. Moreover, the belief about ‘gratitude’ that Buddhists give importance so much, as its been stated that if one having the gratitude values, their life would be as prosperous both physically
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and mentally. The religious belief have so many principles as to help Buddhism from their sufferings in the current world (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2019).
In Buddhism, Karma (the law of cause and effect), says "for every event that occurs, there will follow another event whose existence was caused by the first, and this second event will be pleasant or unpleasant according as its cause was skillful or unskillful." Therefore, the law of Karma teaches that the responsibility for unskillful actions is borne by the person who commits them. In the Buddhist traditions, life aspects affected by the law of karma in past and current births of a being
In Buddhism, Karma (the law of cause and effect), says "for every event that occurs, there will follow another event whose existence was caused by the first, and this second event will be pleasant or unpleasant according as its cause was skillful or unskillful." Therefore, the law of Karma teaches that the responsibility for unskillful actions is borne by the person who commits them. In the Buddhist traditions, life aspects affected by the law of karma in past and current births of a being