In this chapter, we present the literature review regarding the “importance of employability”, including definition of employability and different views of employability; “Required employability skills for Salesperson”: currently what employability skills salesperson should have; “Employability Framework for Salesperson”: three main employability frameworks, developing the salesperson employability skills in this research.
Employability
Employers complain that the HR staff could hardly recruit talented employees;
however, job hunters also complain about finding jobs (Shi, 2007). Although there are many factors to why job hunters cannot find a suitable job, Shi mentions that developing the employability as a priority helps job hunters seek employment and maintain their job.
Definition of Employability
First, the concepts of employment and employability are different. However, some people apply employment rate to measure one’s employability. Employment, in general, is a contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. Therefore, employment is the fact of getting a job, but employability is how one should be prepared and own sufficient ability to be employed (Little, 2001).
In general, employment refers to the concern about whether one could get a job within three to six months after graduation; relatively, employability refers to
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long-term development of one’s career, and one owns sufficient abilities to transfer from the original field to another. The term of employability does not just focus on the rate of employment, but most importantly, it is put an emphasis on developing competitive advantage ability in the future.
Employability is not a new term. Beveridge (1909) defined it as a way to distinguish whether people have an ability to be employed or not. Briefly, employability is the means to tell whether the unemployed has the ability to be rehired or not. After the World War II, Feintuch (1955) discussed employability on the basis of social background, and focused on handicapped people, and emphasizes the topic on this group who is inferior in the labor market. In the 1950’s to 1960’s, employability was redefined as one’s potential ability to be employed. One’s employability will be judged by one’s past performance in the work place, and the attitude is relatively important (Soloff & Bolton, 1969). As a result, then, the main mission was to help the unemployed return to the work place through changing his/her attitude. In the 1970s, people attached importance on one’s professional expertise, work skills, and value, but not attitude only.
Following Hoyt (1978) suggested that if one wishes to occupy his/her advantageous position in the work place and keep the job, it is very important to focus on the skill of interpersonal relationships. Therefore, one’s core employability transfers to strengthen interpersonal skill, and build up social networks, to gain and keep the job, furthermore, to seek a next job. Atkinson (1984) explained that employability includes attitude, knowledge, skill, and any other factors related to any performance in the labor market. Gradually, with the time change, an employee recognizes that his/her career development will be changed. In other words, employability is explained as the accumulation of one’s ability to sale oneself in the
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employment.
In the 1990’s, the concept of employability goes deeply, for instance, including the labor market environment, the policy of corporations and so on as suggested by de Grip, Van Loo, and Sandders (2004). This time, four dimensions of employability include individual property, professional skills, conditions of employment, and training policies from government and employers. Thus, the responsibility to develop employability falls on the individual, the government, and the employer.
Employability is about having the capabilities to gain the initial employment, maintain employment and obtain new employment if required (Hillage & Pollard, 1998). In the 2000’s, employability is a process of learning that leads to individuals gaining and retaining fulfilling work as suggested by Harvey, Locke and Morey (2002). Besides, they explain employability as the way how individuals engage with opportunities, reflect, and articulate their skills and experiences. Yorke (2006) defined employability as a set of achievements - skills, understandings and personal attributes - that make graduates more likely to gain employment and be successful in their chosen occupations, which benefits themselves, the workforce, the community and the economy. To sum up, there had been many research papers discussing employability and defined its meanings. The condensed information presented in Table 2.1.
The report Employability Skills for the Future (ACCI/BCA, 2002) defined employability as skills required not only to gain employment, but also to progress within an enterprise so as to achieve one’s potential and contribute successfully to enterprise. “Employability Skills Framework” was developed through the views of employers and research with small and medium-sized and large enterprises. Size ranged from enterprises of two employees to over 1000 employees in Australia.
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Table 2.1.
Definitions of Employability from Different Researchers
Scholar Year Definition
Beveridge 1909 Employability is to tell if one has the ability to work.
Feintuch 1955 Employability refers to one’s potential ability to be employed.
Hoyt 1978 Employability focus on using social skills to get, main the current job, and seek the opportunity for this job.
Atkinson 1984 Employability includes attitude, knowledge, skill, and any other factors related to any performance in the labor market.
Hillage and Pollard
1998 Employability refers to have the capabilities to gain initial employment, maintain employment and obtain new employment if required.
Harvey et al. 2002 Employability is a process of learning that leads to individuals gaining and retaining fulfilling work.
de Grip et al. 2004 Discussing employability by four dimensions, including personal characteristic, professional skills, labor market environment, and training policies.
Yorke 2006 A set of achievements - skills, understandings and personal attributes - that make graduates more likely to gain employment and be successful in their chosen occupations.
The following Table 2.2 presents a consolidation of the personal attributes, skills and elements that frame the “Employability Skills Framework.” Facets of the skill that the employer identified as important, noting that the mix and priority of these facets would vary from job to job.
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Writing to the needs of the audience Negotiating responsively
Reading independently Empathizing
Using numeracy effectively
Understanding the needs of internal and external customers
Persuading effectively
Establishing and using networks Being assertive
Sharing information
Speaking and writing in languages other than English Teamwork Working with people of different ages, gender, race,
religion or political persuasion
Working as an individual and as a member of a team Knowing how to define a role as part of a team
Applying teamwork skills to a range of situations, e.g.
futures planning, crisis problem solving Identifying the strengths of team members Coaching, mentoring and giving feedback Problem solving Developing creative, innovative solutions
Showing independence and initiative in identifying problems and solving them
Solving problems in teams
Applying a range of strategies to problem solving
(table continues)
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Table 2.2. (Continued)
Skill Element
Problem solving Using mathematics including Budgeting and financial management to solve problems
Applying problem-solving strategies across a range of areas
Testing assumptions taking the context of data and circumstances into account
Resolving customer concerns in relation to complex project issues
Initiative and enterprise Adapting to new situations
Developing a strategic, creative, long-term vision Being creative
Identifying opportunities not obvious to others Translating ideas into action
Generating a range of options Initiating innovative solutions
Planning and organizing Managing time and priorities – setting timelines, coordinating tasks for self and with others
Being resourceful
Taking initiative and making decisions
Adapting resource allocations to cope with contingencies Establishing clear project goals and deliverables
Allocating people and other resources to tasks
Planning the use of resources including time management Participating in continuous improvement and planning processes
Developing a vision and a proactive plan to accompany it Predicting – weighing up risk, evaluating alternatives and applying evaluation criteria
Collecting, analyzing and organizing information
Understanding basic business systems and their relationships (table continues)
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Table 2.2. (Continued)
Skill Element
Self-management Having a personal vision and goals
Evaluating and monitoring own performance
Having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and vision Articulating own ideas and vision
Taking responsibility
Learning Managing own learning
Contributing to the learning community at the workplace Using a range of mediums to learn – mentoring, peer support, networking, information technology (IT), courses
Applying learning to ‘technical’ issues (e.g. learning about products) and ‘people’ issues (e.g. interpersonal and cultural aspects of work)
Having enthusiasm for ongoing learning
Being willing to learn in any setting – on and off the job Being open to new ideas and techniques
Being prepared to invest time and effort in learning new skills Acknowledging the need to learn in order to accommodate change
Technology Having a range of basic IT skills Applying IT as a management tool Using IT to organize data
Being willing to learn new IT skills
Having the occupational health and safety knowledge to apply technology
Having the appropriate physical capacity
Source: Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry & Business Council of Australia, 2002.
Each employability skills contribute to some facets in the organization. For example, communication contributes to productive and harmonious relations between
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employees and customers; teamwork contributes to productive working relationship and outcomes; self-management contributes to employee satisfaction and growth;
technology contributes to effective execution of tasks and etc. The relationship between employability skills and its contributions refer to Table 2.3.
Table 2.3.
Employability Skills and Contributions
Category Contributes to
Communication Productive and harmonious relation between employees and customers
Teamwork Productive working relationships and outcomes
Problem solving Productive outcomes
Initiative and enterprise Innovative outcomes
Planning and organizing Long term and short-term strategic planning
Self-management Employee satisfaction and growth
Learning Ongoing improvement and expansion in employee and company operations and outcomes
Technology Effective execution of tasks
Source: Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry & Business Council of Australia, 2002.
Based on “Employability Skills framework” offered by ACCI/BCA (2002), National Youth Commission (2006) conducted a program about employability of college students and categorized employability into three dimensions. Table 2.4 shows the detailed information.
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Table 2.4.
Employability Skills from National Youth Commission Attitude and
From the report, the respondents of college students and employers, both pointed out the same results that the most important top eight employability, including adequate work attitude, stability and anti-pressure ability, teamwork, learning attitude and flexibility, communication skills, problem-solving, professional knowledge &
skills, and ICT (information computer technology).
On the other hand, the Conference Board of Canada (2001) suggested that
“Employability Skills 2000+” are the critical skills one needs in the workplace, whether one is self-employed or working for others. Employability Skills 2000+ is the employability skills, attitudes and behaviors that one needs to participate and progress in today’s dynamic world of work, including communication, problem solving, positive attitudes and behaviors, adaptability, working with others, and science, technology and mathematics skills. The main dimensions and framework of
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Employability Skills 2000+ presented in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5.
Employability Skills 2000+
Dimension Sub-dimension Item
Communicate Read and understand information presented in a variety of forms
Write and speak so others pay attention and understand Listen and ask questions to understand and appreciate the points of view of others
Share information using a range of information and communications technologies
Use relevant scientific, technological and mathematical knowledge and skills to explain or clarify ideas
Manage Information
Locate, gather and organize information using appropriate technology and information systems
Access, analyze and apply knowledge and skills from various disciplines
Use Numbers Decide what needs to be measured or calculated
Observe and record data using appropriate methods, tools and technology
Recognize the human, interpersonal, technical, scientific and mathematical dimensions of a problem
Identify the root cause of a problem
Evaluate solutions to make recommendations or decisions (table continues)
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Table 2.5. (Continued)
Dimension Sub-dimension Item
Fundamental Skills Think & Solve Problems
Be creative and innovative in exploring possible solutions implement solutions
Check to see if a solution works, and act on opportunities for improvement
Readily use science, technology and mathematics as ways to think, gain and share knowledge, solve problems and make decisions
Demonstrate Positive Attitudes
& Behaviors
Feel good about yourself and be confident
Deal with people, problems and situations with honesty, integrity and personal ethics
Recognize your own and other people’s good efforts Take care of your personal health
Show interest, initiative and effort
Be Responsible Set goals and priorities balancing work and personal life Plan and manage time, money and other resources to achieve goals
Assess, weigh and manage risk
Be accountable for your actions and the actions of your group
Be socially responsible and contribute to your community Personal
Management Skills
Be Adaptable Work independently or as a part of a team Carry out multiple tasks or projects
Be innovative and resourceful: identify and suggest alternative ways to achieve goals and get the job done
Be open and respond constructively to change
(table continues)
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Table 2.5. (Continued)
Dimension Sub-dimension Item
Be Adaptable Learn from your mistakes and accept feedback Cope with uncertainty
Learn Continuously
Be willing to continuously learn and grow
Assess personal strengths and areas for development Set your own learning goals
Identify and access learning sources and opportunities Plan for and achieve your learning goals
Personal Management Skills
Work Safely Be aware of personal and group health and safety practices and procedures, and act in accordance with these
Work with Others
Understand and work within the dynamics of a group Ensure that a team’s purpose and objectives are clear Be flexible: respect, be open to and supportive of the thoughts, opinions and contributions of others in a group Recognize and respect people’s diversity, individual differences and perspectives
Accept and provide feedback in a constructive and considerate manner
Contribute to a team by sharing information and expertise Lead or support when appropriate, motivating a group for high performance
Understand the role of conflict in a group to reach solutions Manage and resolve conflict when appropriate
Teamwork Skills
Participate in Projects & Tasks
Plan, design or carry out a project or task from start to finish with well-defined objectives and outcomes
(table continues)
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Table 2.5. (Continued)
Dimension Sub-dimension Item
Teamwork Skills Participate in Projects & Tasks
Develop a plan, seek feedback, test, revise and implement Work to agreed quality standards and specifications
Select and use appropriate tools and technology for a task or project
Adapt to changing requirements and information
Continuously monitor the success of a project or task and identify ways to improve
Source: The Conference Board of Canada, 2001.
In this section, the researcher explored that employment and employability are not the same thing. Being employed means have a job. For those who is not adequately prepared, having a job is to be a temporary condition. Developing employability is the way to maintain employment and progress in the workplace (Bhaerman & Spill, 1988).
Different Views of Employability
Employability is adopted comprehensively all over the world. The concept of employability is possibly no different or slightly different, but some researchers use different terms to interpret it. According to Human Resource Development Canada (1994), some regions of Europe defined the concept of employability as skills, or qualification. In France, it is known as crossing competencies, or transferable competencies. In England, people take employability, core skills, and common skills at the same concepts. Recently, the British called it as key skills. In Italy, it is known as knowing how to be. In Germany, people call it as key qualifications. In Denmark, it is known as process, or independent qualifications. In Australia, it is known as key
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competencies. In Dutch, it is known as core competencies, transversal competencies, or key competencies. In the U.S.A., it is known as necessary skills, skills needed for employment, or employability skills.
Besides that people use different words to define the term “Employability” from country to country, a great deal of researchers use different terms to define the concept of employability, such as core skills, key skills, generic skills, personal transferable skills, common skills, work, work skills or employment skills. Besides, the terms of skills relates to the other term, such as capabilities, competencies or attributes (Lees, 2002). This all makes the term “Employability” more difficult to construct, dimension and conceptualize.
Skills plus Project regards employability as the composition of personal qualities, skills of various kinds, and subject understanding. Traditionally, the concept of personal qualities is undervalued, but it is especially significant to include it as the part of employability (Knight & Yorke, 2004). Atkins (1999) noted that one’s personal qualities contribute to learning, and develop various skills as well; otherwise, various skills benefit the development of subject learning. Spencer and Spencer (1993) mentioned that there are various factors that influence work performance, including skills, knowledge, self-concept, trait, and motive. They further explained that skills and knowledge are easier to develop by training, whereas self-concept, trait, and motive will be difficult to develop. The Association of Graduate Recruiters (1995) suggested graduates should own career management skills and effective learning skills after seeking for a job, including self-awareness, self-promotion, exploring and creating opportunities, action planning, networking, matching and decision-making, negotiation, political awareness, coping with uncertainty, development focus, transfer skills and self-confidence. However, an investigation found that employers expect
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their employee to be equipped with qualities such as knowledge, intellect, willingness to learn, self-management skills, and communication skills, team-working and interpersonal skills as suggested by Harvey, Moon, Geall and Bower (1997). Yorke (1999) found that SMEs (small and medium enterprises) in Merseyside mainly valued the skills of their employees at oral communication, handling one’s own work load, team-working, managing others, getting to the heart of problems, critical analysis, summarizing and group problem-solving. On the other hand, SMEs valued attributes of their employees included being able to work under pressure, commitment, working varied hours, dependability, imagination/creativity, getting on with people and willingness to learn. Knight and Yorke (2004) conducted an interview to 97 college-educated freshmen and found out the four dimensions when they met the question “what factors will help you get your job”, including degree experience, personal qualities, communication skills, and more pragmatic aspects. Human Resource Development Canada (2002) suggested that when discussing employability, connecting nine essential skills, such as reading, using documents, math, writing, oral communicate, work with others, using computer, continual learning, and skills of thinking.
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Required Employability for Salesperson
A sale is the pinnacle activity involved in selling products or services in return for money or other compensation. It is an act of completion of a commercial activity.
A salesperson is the one who executes this activity, also known as salesman, sales people, sales representative, and so on. Generally, salesperson plays an important role in a profit-oriented organization.
Moss (1978) proposed that from his research, senior managers consider top salesperson higher performance on the following traits: enthusiasm, well-organized, and obvious ambition. Greenberg (1986) suggested that successful a salesperson has three essential traits: empathy, ego drive, and ego strength. Spiro and Weitz (1990) regarded that a salesperson should be equipped with some traits, such as self-monitoring, empathy, androgyny, opener, and locus of control.
Each type of sales work requires its own unique configuration of traits, attributes
Each type of sales work requires its own unique configuration of traits, attributes