Due to the Research Purposes and research questions, this study did literature review of six main part; course development, the definition of competency course, the definition of course, key elements of competency-based course, the standards of competency course and critical success factors. Detail collections of literature were described in following part.
Course Development
Since there are lots of model and method can be the tool to develop course.
Competency-based accreditation adapted the ADDIE model and follows the steps to verify the course design. Therefore, the main line of literature review of course development was focused on ADDIE model.
ISD is a model to guide instructional course design practice. The model helps to decide the tool to use and show the linear stages (Gustafson & Branch, 2002). Since no model can fit into all kind of situations, it was renewed and created by the time. As a improve model of the ISD process, the ADDIE model was appeared. The ADDIE model is of the ISD process, which includes analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation (Gagné, Golas, Keller&Wager, 2005).
There is also a linear process of steps to follow and to design the course (Branon, 2011).
The model includes more feedback and interactions which makes it more flexible. Five essential stages are used to corporate with the knowledge of how people learn. The ADDIE model is used to solve the identified problem, analyze goals, and find the way and method to make the course meet the goal. The design stage starts choose the system. At development stage, instructors are in charge of writing materials, pilot instruction and materials.At the implementation stage is a procedure stage which to decide speakers, learners and the way to provide feedback. Finally, the system is evaluated and modified which is the most difficult part. The way to choose to evaluate is hard. Some performance is not easy to evaluate no
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matter is in multi-dimensions or some simple guideline. The ADDIE model has had big influence on the training field, which remains very popular today.
Definition of Competency-Based Course Definition of Competency
The word "competency" is continuous appearing in the human resources field (Woodruffe, 1993). Boyatzis (2000) mentioned that an organization must find a consistent balance between competencies of the staffs, the demands of the job and the organizational environment, so appropriate competencies are needed to effective output at work.
Competency could be divided into two parts, knowledge and capability whichcan be gained by training.Other important competency development model set it as five main steps included front-end needs analysis, competency model, development, curriculum planning, learning intervention design and development, and evaluation. Define and set specific competencies in all level of jobs in organizations can increase the performance and effectiveness in organization, as we use training program to eliminate the competency gap.
McLagan (1997) simplified the structure of competency into knowledge, ability and skill, which definition has been widely adopted and became the most popular definition of competency. To summarize, competency is a dimension of significant behavior which allows a person to perform well (Woodruffe, 1993), are dimensions of behavior, and so we are seeking to specify what competency should be involved in order to reach the goal.Some definitions of competency refer to work tasks and the results of the outputs, while others define competencies as work knowledge, skills, and attitudes (McLagan, 1997). Parry (1998) provided definitions defining competency as the following:
“A cluster of related knowledge, attitudes and skills that affects a major part of one's job (i.e., one or more key roles or responsibilities); that correlates with performance on the job;
that can be measured against well-accepted standards; and that can be improved via training
9 and development (p. 60).”
Competency models are used to clarify specific competencies which can improve worker performance (Rothwell &Lindholm, 1999). Competency models are divided into two different categories, generic and organizationally. Generic competency models include entire classification of workers or industries, such us developed by government researchers, academics. Organizationally specific models are developed by larger organizations (Wills, 1993).
Definition of Course
Course contains lecturer or instructors, syllabus, time constraint and it is usually focus on unit subject. Some courses are defined contain individual subject while others include entire program. When it mentioned to time constraint some courses last only dew weeks, while other courses continue for one semester or even more. After finishing the whole course, students will get grade or academic credit.Moreover, there are different types of course, for example, lecture, seminar, tutorial, laboratory course…. Some courses combine more than two of teaching ways include lecture, discussion and practice. Coursesare explained in detail.
Definition of Competency-BasedCourse
New development and innovative learning environment to increase the effectiveness of both teaching and learning become more important recently since competitive advantage of knowledge, intellectual property and human capital. Today, intangible assets account for most of the company’s value. Compare to the previous era, to keep in competitive advantage it is not only to have new equipment and low-cost production but to increase human knowledge and skills.
Competency-based course is to identify competencies for each topic in learning objects and to write detail of what knowledge, skills and attitude student will gain after finishing the whole course. Well-trained in competency course enable students get a job successfully.
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Competency-based course can reduce the gap between school and work act and increase skill and productivity in labor market.Education should focus on competency-level training and make students “industry ready” (Passow 2012).
Through competency-based course we can easily identify those capability and characteristics required by industry.There are different kinds of definition of competency but no definition is universally accepted (Ducrot & Shankararaman, 2015).
Most of competency-based course and learning programs have been in professional or vocational training sector (Baumgartner & Shankararaman, 2013).
Competency-based training can give confidence in trainees’ capabilities, if they successfully complete their program and exhibit competency during their period of training (Ranil, et al., 2014).
Course design involves writing competencies the students should learn at the end of the course. After finishing the course, students are requested to have a certain standard of outcome. At the time, students must have the skills and knowledge written by the course set.
Key Elements of Competency-BasedCourse
Policies and practices have big influences in making organizations effective and reaching strategic goal. Therefore, it is important to design and implement policies and processes to ensure that the human capital in the organization is meeting the organizational goals and objectives. Human capital has been considered as the cooperated competencies of the staff. In order to eliminate the gap between school and job, the well design of competency curriculum will be useful for students, to make sure the learning process is in the right and effective way. Learn to meet the need of the workplace by improving standards. Therefore, the entire work force will be able to operate more efficient and effectively as all well trained personnel will have more confidence to seek more knowledge, and will have a higher degree of job satisfaction as they ascertain a higher compensation for their improved development
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(Thonguthai & Kaewkuekool, 2011). The benefits of well-trained workforces are also culminating and generational as personnel will help transfer their knowledge life experience to future jobs. There is a strong need for unqualified workers to gain qualification in order to raise standards of practice, and also gain more ideal pay (Rezaiea, Ostadib, Tadayoun, &
Aghdasi, 2009).
We have a huge need to enhance the skills and knowledge of unqualified workers and unemployment, and to make students to solve the gap between school and firms, so the competency curriculums are designed to be relevant to the needs of employers and industry.
After the education and training we request learns to be fully expressed under
“competencies”and which can be classified as “objectively” assessed toward the workplace.
KSAs are the foundation of competencies. A job can be divided into different tasks.
Through analyze tasks, competencies can be defined in order to fulfill a job. Competencies can be divided into knowledge, skill and ability.
Knowledge. Knowledge contains understanding how, when and why to do the job, which include knowing the principle of the jobs, job process and detail information of the job.
Moreover, knowledge can be divided into declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge and strategic knowledge. Declarative knowledge is about some factual information such as legal, principal and rules set and define clearly. After having factual knowledge, it refers to
procedural knowledge which means knowing the rationale of fulfill the job and apply of the declarative knowledge. The highest level is strategic knowledge which means in order to reach the goal one can know clear the inner rules, plans and have the ability knowledge to monitor and revise activities.
Skill. Based on Blanchard & Thacker (2010), skill is be able to do the job in an action way.
To simplify it, it’s about knowing how to do the job and the timing to do the job. Skill can be divided into two levels: compilation and automaticity. Compilation is in lower level which
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means when a person is still a novice or a newcomer. Automaticity means one can finish a job without thinking and do it with subconscious. Practice makes perfect can fully describe a person in automaticity skill.
Attitudes. Behavior can be affected by attitudes so that attitudes are important impact factor of implement one job. Therefore, change a person’s attitude can change the performance of a job. Although compare to knowledge and skill pervious mentioned, change one’s attitude is the hardest.
In competency course, the facilities need to analyze which contain knowledge, skill and attitude in different tasks of one job or one training objection.The principle to write the competency and criteria of behavior need to follow bysituation, task, action andresult (STAR) or to followaudience,behavior,condition anddegree (Xiao, 2013). By follow these two principles, it will be easier to identify weather the level is correct.
The Standards of Competency Course
The term“standards”has been linked with “training standards” for a long time.
Competency course requires the setting of standards. Applicants have to carry out all these tasks correspondingly in order to be judged and verified.
Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education’s (ACPE) Standards in 2007 mentioned that the curriculum must define the expected outcomes and be developed with attention to sequencing and integration of content and the selection of teaching and learning methods and assessments.
In Australia, competency standard are adopted an integrated model of competency, which includes description of practical behaviors and performance factors. (Melbourne Department of Human Services, 2005). Competency-based standards were mentionedin the early1990s which enable to maximum the use of skills in the community and to provide a framework for well-designed processes. While competency standard provide useful
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framework, it is clearer for academic program and training institutions to follow up. The competency standard is highly dependent on workplace experience and culture (Johnson &
Hager 2008).
In National Vocational Qualifications which is anaccreditation system, each course is dived into elements of competence. Each elements of competence has related to performance criteria and range statements. The purpose of the statement is to outline the specific competencies in the curriculum (Rezaieaet al.,2009). The standards of the qualification organization accept evidence base on the judgement of the depth and breadth of the applicants’ knowledge, and values.
After organized of the accreditation of standards and requirements, the following are some basic requirements:
Student selection, student qualification
Design and review of curriculum
Describe workplace and practice learning opportunities
Industry background
Draw the process map or curriculum map
Point the competencies of each course
Analysis of iCAP
The goal of competency-based course accreditation is to make assurance the quality of competency curriculum. The main task of competency-based course accreditation is to examine the process of course to make sure the training development and the consequence having high quality, and to make sure the if it’s conscientious, appropriate and effective among the course demands, course design and course development.
After training institutions implement the requirements set by competency-based course accreditation, the organization will give them a certification symbol.
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The mission of course design is to conduct competency model focus on different jobs in specific industry, enterprise or organization. Therefore, the learners can gain the specific level of behavior through competency learning.Workforce Development Agency developed the guideline followed by five dimensions of analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation. The committees will exam the cases follow by ADDIE requirements they announced on their official website.
Critical Success Factors
Critical success factors (CSFs) is to define the strategic ways to reach organization goals.The success and failure factors were first introduced by Zhou, Huang, & Zhang in 2011.
CSFs were first used in the researches of project management, and became widely applied in various fields such as organizational management, operational management and supply chain management.
CSFs are generally defined as “ways to ensure successful competitive performance for the individuals, departments, or organizations” (Ravinder, Rajesh, & Ravi, 2015, p. 385).
CSFs are indication to “get right” insuccessfully and completely fulfill the business goals (Rockart, 1986). Rockart also mentioned that the process of identifying CSFs helps to ensure that factors gain the necessary attention.
The CSFs follow from the vision and mission of the organization and from a strategic evaluation of the market. CSFs as the elements, such as quality, time, cost reduction, innovativeness, customer service, or product performance, which creates long-term profitability for the organization.
Knowing the right way and do lots of prepare of CSF can reduce time and cost when complement one project and to have a significant impact. When CSFs are adequately implemented, they helps and is as a guarantee of successfully improve the development of an organization.
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If too many CSFs are listed, it is easily for policymaker causing misunderstanding and difficulty in practice. Therefore, it is not the more the better. CSFs can be external o internal and can influence business or project in either positively or negatively ways. Furthermore, CSFs may also be calcified ingenerality or specificity perspectives.
After literature review, researcher found that there are many elements of success factors suit for different goals and different industry. In process management, CSFs contain teamwork and team development, communication and awareness, customer focus, process mapping, process performance measurement, customer/supplier relations, benchmarking and top management support (Rezaieaet al., 2009). While in supply chain the CSFs are communication, setting of standards, development of relationships, performance monitoring, knowing the payback period, inventory management, transport and capacity planning, human resource management, continuous improvement, resource management (Power, Sohal, &
Rahman, 2001).
In general category, it can be divided in technology factors, organization factors, social factors and personal factors (Shih & Huang, 2009). Some general factors adapt in business competitive advantage include decision-making, knowledge and training, administration controls, adaptability, top management support and system efficiency.
The Method of Analyzing CSFs
There are some main methodologies of finding CSFs which include DEMATEL method, Delphi method and semi-structured interviews or interviews.
Delphi method. The Delphi method asks questions andselect optimal answers in two or three-rounds. Usually it collects data from academic experts, public policy developers
orexperts from industry with full experience bur not exceeding 25 people. Too many selected experts will cause opinions divergent and hard to concentrate on specific concept. Delphi researches are used to predict future problems or solve problem in specific field (Custer,
16 Scarcella, & Stewart, 1999).
Delphi method needs to assume that experts provided true and honest responses without any concernand chosen experts are from practical industry without information lag and clearly understand the scope of the problems.
Semi-structured interviews. The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological research study is to observe and describe lived experiences, perceptions and behavior from the
research study participants and also is allowed to interact with the research study participants (Ivey, 2013).
Interview. The traditional interviews doing by oral which can get deep information from interviewees when being asked in open-ended questions. It is important to give interviewee a comfortable atmosphere to let them be willing to share deeper experience and information.
It is better to ask questions in the same scope among different interviewees to stay the consistency and reliability. Through in-person interview research can get full-scale of picturesand specific event.
After the analyzing of literature review, researcher decided to use interview to search the CSFs of competency-base accreditation which can get in-depth and insight information and full stories from interviewees.
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