E-HR refers to conducting human resources related business transactions electronically and specifically on the internet (Lengnick-Hall & Moritz, 2003). Bell et al. (2006) posited that an e-HR system “allows managers to timely access information and data for analyses and to make decisions.
Johnson and Gueuta (2011) in Society for Human Resource Management practice series for human resource professionals urges that human resource shall evolve into a more technology-based profession since the technology can help human resource practitioners with the following advantages: reducing administrative burdens and streamlining the administrative processes, lowering HR costs spent on administration and compliance, competing effectively for talents from the world, improving accessibility to employees and managers in organization, providing timely information for decision makers and enabling HR professionals to transform themselves into a more strategy-focused mindset in business.
The issue of HR innovative adoption has long been a research interest in the academic society. The literature can be traced to Jenkins and Lloyd (1985) who elaborated on the influence of corporate philosophy and strategy on the use of HR information systems. Wolfe (1995) who attempted to describe and define HRM innovations (HRMIs) developed a model of HRMI implementation after reviewing three studies of HRMI implementation. Lin (1997) devised a study to examine the factors that ensure successful HR information system (HRIS) implementation in Taiwan. These factors included top management support, support of information system (IS) department, involvement of human resource leaders, support of HR staff, level of computer knowledge of the HR staff, and HRIS training. The interest continues
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in current day with many new factors explored. For example, Panayotopoulou et al. (2007) studied E-HR adoption and the role of HRM in Greece focusing on strategy, process and HRM issues. The study concluded that Greece lagged behind other European countries in e-HR adoption. Strohmeier and Kabst (2009) conducted a large-scale sample-based evaluation of cross-national influence factors that drive organizational adoption of e-HRM in Europe, which uncovered size, work organization, and configuration of HRM to be the major general determinants of e-HRM adoption.
Strohmeier and Kabst (2009) also found major cross-national differences in e-HRM adoption. A later research conducted by Panayotopoulou et al. (2010) introduced national background of the firm as a relevant factor in the adoption of electronic systems in HRM.
Using data from 13 European countries, they found that the adoption of e-HRM is region-specific and affected by multiple factors. They also supported the existence of two distinct sets of HRM technological systems, that is, back-end and front-end ones.
Several studies in 2010 continued the international theme. Wickramasinghe (2010) conducted a study on employee perceptions towards web-based human resource management systems in Sri Lanka. The research surveyed 30 firms in the service and manufacturing sectors with web-based HRM systems as a stand-alone automation serving employees' HRM needs. The findings suggested that system usage is high and user satisfaction is moderate.
The level of complexity of the system is moderate and it significantly correlates with system usage. If the operation system is relatively new, the users were likely to be satisfied with the system. Further, users did not perceive web-based electronic HRM system as a method of shifting administrative responsibilities of HRM activities to them. Mishra and Akman (2010) conducted a survey in Turkey among 106 IT managers and professionals from various sectors which shows that IT is used extensively in the organizations to perform HRM functions in
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Turkey's dynamic economy. The results also indicated that, while IT has an impact on all sectors in terms of HRM to certain extent, the types of IT used vary significantly between recruitment, maintenance, and development tasks. However, the empirical results here reveal that these organizations are not applying these technologies systematically and maturely in the performance of HRM functions.
A few studies have devoted their efforts to building a more comprehensive framework or an integrated model of the factors of HR innovation adoption. Lippert and Michael Swiercz (2005) attempted to model the relationship between human resource information systems (HRIS) and technology trust using organizational, technological, and user factors to generate a set of testable propositions. Eleven propositions were offered to suggest that organizational trust, pooled interdependence, organizational community, organizational culture, technology adoption, technology utility, technology usability, socialization, sensitivity to privacy, and predisposition to trust influence an individual's level of trust in the HRIS technology (technology trust) and ultimately the success of an HRIS implementation process.
Although e-HR was not the specific subject of this study, Lai (2008) conducted a related study on the information system strategies of MNC affiliates using the technology- organization- environment model as the organizing framework. The results indicated that IT maturity, parent resource dependency, cultural distance, restrictive regulations, and local competition are significant determinants of global information system (GIS) strategy. The study also found that the integration- responsiveness model can be applied to explain GIS strategies and their implementation.
Leidner et al. (2010) developed and tested an integrated model that seeks to understand why certain hospitals are IT innovators. Using IT innovation theory as their theoretical
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foundation, they examine three antecedents, including the chief information officer (CIO) strategic leadership, the top management team's (TMT) attitude toward IT, and the hospital's climate. Further, they examine the influence of IT innovation on the impact of IT within the hospital and the influence on the hospital's financial performance. The research model was tested using both survey and archival data from 70 matched pairs of hospital CIOs and executives. The results suggest that the CIO strategic leadership and the TMT's attitude toward IT are key factors that influence IT innovation; however, the influence of a hospital's climate on organizational IT innovation is contingent upon the CIO's level of strategic leadership. The results also suggest that hospitals that are IT innovators can generate greater impact from IT, which in turn results in greater performance for the hospital.
Martin and Reddington (2010) developed and partially tested a model of e-human resources (e-HR) focusing on the relationship between HR strategy, e-HR goals and architectures, and positive and negative e-HR outcomes. They proposed many moderators of this relationship, including the organization and resources of the HR function, the absorptive capacity of HR, the skills and preferred styles of HR professionals, the levels of technology acceptance among employees and line managers and the models of change used in implementing e-HR programs. They tested certain features of this model using data from a case study of a leading international oil field services provider. These data provided a partial confirmation of the model's validity but showed the need for a more dynamic understanding of the links between e-HR variables and the importance of context in explaining differences between line managers' acceptance of e-HR.
Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart, and Wright (2003) point out that the human resource management included the function that would influence the employee behavior, attitude, performance policy, application and the systems. Human resource function include analysis
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and design for jobs, determine the demand for human resource (human resource planning), attracting high-potential employee (recruiting), choose the right employees (selection), teaching the employees how to perform the current jobs and for future jobs (training and development), giving the employees the paychecks (compensation), evaluating the employees’
performance (performance management) and creating a positive job environment (employee relationship). The e-HR application, therefore, is based on actual human resource tasks.
As mentioned earlier, the usage of E-HR system can bring about some benefits. The benefits of the E-HR practices are organized in HR functional categorization. The benefits of e-recruiting are listed in Table 2. 1.
Table 2. 1.
Benefits of E-recruiting
Benefits of E-recruiting Citations
Reaching large numbers of qualified applicants Cappelli, 2001; Galanaki, 2002 Reducing recruitment cost Cappelli, 2001; Johnson & Gueuta,
2011
Decreasing cycle time Cober, Brown, Levy, Cober, &
Keeping, 2003; Robert & Janice, 2003 Streamlining burdensome administrative
processes
Johnson & Gueuta, 2011; Stone, Lukaszewski, & Isenhour., 2005 Enabling the organization to evaluate the success
of its recruitment strategy
Establish brand identities Allen, Mahto, & Otondo, 2007;
Johnson & Gueuta, 2011; Stone et al., 2005
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Potential benefits of e-learning discussed by scholars (Burgess & Russell, 2003; Johnson
& Gueuta, 2011; José, Juan, & González, 2004; Kirsty & Anna, 2004; Salas, DeRouin, &
Littrell, 2005; Steve et al., 2001) are listed in Table 2. 2.
Table 2. 2.
Benefits of E-learning Benefits of E-learning
Increasing employee flexibility from long distance learning
Cost saving
The ability to train employees efficiently and quickly
Using the most knowledgeable instructors for high-quality training
Providing timely updates to training material as necessary
Increasing the responsibility trainees have for learning
Adding trainees or instructors without much supplementary cost
Reducing the indirect costs of training (for example, costs associated with travel to training facilities, hotel accommodations for trainees, lost work time for employees attending training)
According to Cardy and Miller (2005), potential benefits of e-performance management, when appraisal satisfaction is well maintained, may include:
Table 2. 3.
Benefits of E-performance Benefits of E-performance
Computerized performance monitoring permits greater span of control because it facilitates accurate collection of performance data without requiring managers to spend significant time observing each individual worker’s actual job performance.
Feedback is more clearly related to work output and less to superiors’ biased impressions
Greater performance improvement, increasing productivity and enhancing competitiveness
Improving appraisal satisfaction, thus helping organizations retain, motivate, and develop their employees
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According to Dulebohn and Marler (2005), potential benefits of e-compensation are listed in Table 2. 4.
Table 2. 4.
Benefits of E-compensation Benefits of E-compensation
Increasing access to critical compensation information electronically on an as-needed basis
Enabling round-the clock availability of meaningful compensation information to managers and employees
Streamline cumbersome bureaucratic tasks through the introduction of workflow functionality and real-time information processing.
According to Gueutal and Falbe (2005), potential benefits of HR portal and employee self-service are listed in Table 2. 5.
Table 2. 5.
Benefits of Employee Self Service Benefits of employee self service
Data is available to employees 24/7 and 365 days per year.
Managers have much easier access to information and are able to more rapidly and efficiently manage their staffs.
Reducing the cost of call centers and HR specialists to handle HR services requests.
With all the potential benefits, the human resource management professionals may urge the organizations to utilize e-HR adoption to further facilitate organizational competitive advantages. Haines and Lafleur (2008) conducted a literature review on vendor packages and business solution packages to develop a comprehensive list of 78 e-HR application within 9 human resource functions: 1. HR audits and survey, 2. Employee benefits, 3. Compensation and rewards, 4. Health and safety, 5.Performance management, 6. HR planning and career development, 7.staffing, 8. Training and development, and 9. Employee relations.
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Complexity of HR Role Expectation
Role Expectation
The behavior researchers have studied roles in different perspective. For example, sociological researchers are concerned with the individual expectation and the actual behavior changes; for psychological researchers, how the psychological changes of one’s perception and its perceived role expectation are emphasized.
Gross, Mason, and McEachern (1958) defined the roles as the series of role expectation given by shareholders regarding specific position in organization. The shareholders might be the relevant supervisors, colleagues, subordinates, customers and some others.
According to Sarbin and Allen (1968), role expectation is a cognitive concept, which includes beliefs, expectations, subjectivity and rights and obligation performed. Westwood (1967) also agree that the role expectation is cognitive concept, and further address the behaviors that a role shall perform.
Above all the definitions, the roles are defined as the person perceived some expectations and the behavior that might be changed according to the norms or social codes.
Role expectation indicates that people were assumed to perform certain behaviors in certain locations. If the role expectation is perceived in general norms, role stereotypes are hence formed. Some other scholars believe that role expectation include 1). the self-image of the role performer, and 2). the expectation from other.
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HR Role Evolution
The HR role has gone through tremendous transition in the past decades with greater role expectations. Early in the 70s and 80s, human resource professionals were regarded as the personnel employees. The traditional view of human resource function lies in the administration. With environment changes, the personnel function cannot fully support organizational needs and therefore transform itself into a larger scope, human resource management department. Later, some scholars suggest that human resource management should elevate its importance from transactional activities to transformational activities (Ulrich, 1997). However, the evolution of human resource management urged its functions to become more dynamically interactive with the environment (Sherman, Bohlander, & Snell, 1996). Recruiting, selection, performance appraisal, training and development, and compensation are further included in human resource management systems. As a result, human resource management function can fully engage in the organizational strategy design and stimulate organizational performance. Consequently, human resource management is viewed as one of the important roles in organizations. The historical evolution of human resource management is summarized in Table 2. 6.
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Table 2. 6.
Historical Evolution of HRM
Period Important historical changes Implication for HR professionals Pre-world war
Trade unions power bargains for better work conditions.
More administration tasks and record keeping
Air Force Human Management Laboratory uses computer in
Cost justify the HRM function
HR functional focus shifts to employee development and
Emergency of strategic human resource management (SHRM)
Rightsizing of employee numbers, reducing layer of management and bureaucratic organizational structure
Note. Adapted from Human resource information systems: basics, applications, and future directions, 7-11, by Kavanagh and Thite (2009)
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HR Role Expectation Categorization
Different scholars have categorized HR role from different perspectives. Storey (1992), after exploring the emerging impact of workplace change on personnel practices in UK, proposed the typology of human resource roles as: advisors, handmaidens, regulators and changemakers. Advisors are the counselor of the company, suggesting the future orientation of the company management. However, the role does not involve in the management in the company. The handmaidens are only involved in the operational work. The regulators involve in coordination and response with the departments, and involve no strategic decisions. The changemakers are proactively involved in the management of the departments, and participate in the strategic decisions.
Kesler (1995), on the other hand, provided other roles that HR shall participate in organization: partnering role and transactional role. Partnering roles shall perform three functions: catalytic influence, diagnostic assessment and innovating processes and structures;
transactional role shall provide administrative services, assurance of standards and problem solving.
Schuler and Jackson (2001) indicated that the six main roles human resource play in the leading companies are: partnership, change facilitator, strategy implementer, strategy formulator, innovator and collaborator.
Wright, McMahan, Snell, and Gerhart (2001) borrowed the concepts of Ulrich (1997) and proposed five roles: strategic partner, tailoring practices, providing HR services, providing change consulting and developing organization skills. The role of strategic partner role emphasizes the influence and participation made by the employees. The role of tailoring practices focus on the strategy execution. The role of providing HR service role includes HR serviced delivered to employees. The role of providing change consulting indicates that human resource professionals are responsible in effective management of changes in
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organization. The role of developing organization skills and capabilities highlights the human resource professionals’ responsibility in identifying and developing the core competencies or capabilities critical to organizations.
Ulrich (1997) proposed an integrated human resource model, using two axes representing human resource professionals’ focus and activities. Human resource professionals can have short-term/operational focus or have long-term/strategic focus.
Moreover, the human resource professionals can become people oriented or process oriented.
Combining the two axes, Ulrich (1997) proposed four principal human resource roles:
strategic partner, change agent, employee champion and administrative expert. The strategic expert helps the organization through combining the human resource practice with the organizational strategy. In other words, the role of the human resource professionals is to deliver organizational strategy, accomplish business objectives and produce desired outcome.
In order to attain the goal, the primary action for human resource professionals is to set priorities based on the organizational strategies. The change agent, on the other hand, is to deliver the necessary transformation that the organization desires. The administrative expert helps to provide professional services to internal customers, including chief executive officers, line managers and regular employees. The last but not the least, the role of employee champion helps to retain the employees, to build excellent employee benefits and to take care of the employees. The HR role model of Dave Ulrich (1997) is organized in Figure 2. 1.
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Figure 2. 1. HR roles theorized by Ulrich
The summary of HR roles theorized by different scholars are organized in Table 2. 7.
Table 2. 7.
Different Dimensions of Human Resource Roles
Author Source Dimensions
Storey (1992) Developments in the Management of Human Resources
advisors, handmaidens, regulators and changemakers
Kesler (1995) A model and process for redesigning the HRM role,
competencies, and work in a major multi-national corporation
partnering role and transactional role
Schuler and Jackson (2001)
HR issues and activities in mergers and acquisitions Ulrich (1997) Human Resource Champions: the
Next Agenda for Adding Value and Delivering Results
strategic partner, change agent, employee champion and administrative expert
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Complexity of Role Expectation and E-HR Practices
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, Ulrich (1997) conceptualized that the business partner is the fulfillment of multiple human resource roles, such as strategic partner, administrative expert, employee champion and change agent. Moreover, Ulrich advocated that all four roles are essential to the overall partnership of the human resource as an entire ensemble to the business operation, and the strategic orientation of HR being a business partner often contributes to a high-performance culture. According to Jackson and Harris (2003), high-performance culture is more prone to accept change, and consequently electronic tools adoption. Moreover, a study in Greece also indicates the practitioners agree with the statement that the e-HR adoption have a beneficial impact on achieving organizational strategic goals such as company image, goal alignment and cost reduction (Panayotopoulou et al., 2007).
In order to seek for greater performance to cope with the complexity of roles expectations, the human resource professionals would turn to tools that could help to fulfill the role expectations.
Thus,
Hypothesis 1: Complexity of HR role expectation imposes a positive influence on the departmental usage of e-HR practices.
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Task Complexity
The nature of the task dimension has long been a topic of interest in group research.
However, scholars do not agree on a single method for determining the complexity of a task or that of a group of tasks (Campbell, 1988; Wood, 1986). Daft and Macintosh (1981) analyze task complexity from four dimensions: task variety, task analyzability, amount of information, and equivocality of information. Task variety refers to the frequency of unexpected and novel events that occur in the process of task completion. Task analyzability refers to the degree to which individuals must spend time to respond to problems that arise and introduce uncertainty for the participants in the task performing experience. Amount of information is the volume or quantity of data about organizational activities that is gathered and interpreted by organizational participants. Equivocality of information is the multiplicity of meaning conveyed by information about organizational activities. Daft and Macintosh (1981) argue that the complexity is a function of amount and equivocality of information
However, scholars do not agree on a single method for determining the complexity of a task or that of a group of tasks (Campbell, 1988; Wood, 1986). Daft and Macintosh (1981) analyze task complexity from four dimensions: task variety, task analyzability, amount of information, and equivocality of information. Task variety refers to the frequency of unexpected and novel events that occur in the process of task completion. Task analyzability refers to the degree to which individuals must spend time to respond to problems that arise and introduce uncertainty for the participants in the task performing experience. Amount of information is the volume or quantity of data about organizational activities that is gathered and interpreted by organizational participants. Equivocality of information is the multiplicity of meaning conveyed by information about organizational activities. Daft and Macintosh (1981) argue that the complexity is a function of amount and equivocality of information