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Chapter 2: Literature Review Part 1
RQ1: According to Bartle, what type of players could classify professional
gamers in Bartle's Quotient?
In order to address the effect of Bartle's Quotient on professional players, extended
research was conducted to analyze the behaviors of online gamers.
Bartle Test of Gamer Psychology
Imbuing a rare weapon from a slayed dragon, forming a team of 5 to defeat the enemies’ base town, marrying someone online whom one has never met, and
impersonating another gender for the entire duration of play, these are a few of the
myriad of virtual world that occur in online digital construct known as MMORPGS
(Massively-Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games) (Woodstock, 2004). As millions
of people flock and bombard the virtual platform due to the ubiquity of high-speed
internet connection and decreased cost of internet, the paradigm of computer gaming
has dramatically shifted from a single player mode into a multiple player arena. As
MMORGPS have dominated a significant percentage of game market, copious
amount of gamers have spent countless hours every week. Therefore, the increasing
prevalence of these environments makes it crucial to analyze the core elements of
MMORGPS- players, and how they interact in these digital constructs.
As the result, the Bartle Test of Gamer Psychology is a series of questions and an
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accompanying scoring formula, developed by Richard Bartle (2009), that classifies
players of multiplayer online games (MMORPGS) into categories based on their
gaming preferences. Designed into an electronic form, the tests were given to over
420,000 gamers in 2008 to analyze gaming behaviors. The methodology employed
was called " Bartle Quotient," which was calculated based on the answers to a series
of 30 random questions, and totaled 200% across all categories, with no single
category exceeding 100%. For example, a person may score "100% Killer, 50%
Socializer, 50% Achiever, 0%. In addition, scores were abbreviated by player type
categories, in order of the quotient. Significant to gaming developers, the Bartle Test
has been used by many gaming companies to categorize player types and directly
target intended audiences to achieve maximum appeal. Furthermore, game developers
also use Bartle test to balance their game settings and power of different classes of
characters (Wei, 2006).
The Four Categories of Players
Achievers (Diamonds) In MMORPGs, Bartle categorized achievers as Diamonds
that would prefer to gain "points," game experience, levels, equipments, ranks, and
other concrete measurements of success. Diamond players invest abundant amount of
time on achieving rewards that confer little or no gameplay benefit. Simply for the
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prestige, achievers also prefer boasting or showing off mighty progress or elite status.
In addition, Diamond players challenge or despise the competition from other
Achievers, and in return seek gratification from Socializers. Reaching top spots at the
scoreboards, these gamers find satisfaction and boost of confidence. In League of
Legend, for example, has a special rank ‘’Challenger” dedicating to these achievers to
differentiate the best from the common players.
Explorers (Spades) Explorers are proclaimed "Spades" by for their tendency to
unearth different mechanics of the game. Preferring to discover new quests or hidden
dungeons, and master tricks of the games, the Explorers are prioritized as much as
Achiever in a massively multi-player environment with other players hovering around
their expertise and wisdom. Explorers are usually neutral or positive other Explorers
with exchange of new information. On the other hand, interaction with Killers is
usually negative, as Killers contradicting their preferences of gaming exploration.
Least of player population, the Explorers serves a significant part of the community as
they are the pioneers of gaming.
Socializers (Hearts) Dubbed as "Hearts," these players enjoy communicating and
interacting with other players in the game. As a social platform, Socializers takes
gaming as a haven to make friends and stay connected with others. Furthermore,
Socializers take full advantage of joining guilds or clans in various online games, and
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create a bond of fast friendships and try to help other people out. However, Bartle
noted that potential hatred between Socializers and Killers could indeed occur.
Killers (Clubs) Bartle categorized hostile players as Killers which are associated with
Clubs. Killers prefer Player V.S Players (PVP), granting gratification in slaying their
opponents. More likely to ignore computer-controlled opponents, Killers like to cause
mayhem in player-controlled units. "Ganking," a popular term used in MMORPGs,
refers a process that Killers take their strong characters to attack inexperienced or
weaker characters without warning. Killers stand at the opposite of Socializers due to
the friendly nature of Socializers as they consider Socializers as inert players who do
not contribute to game play.
Bartle notably stated that each type of player is significantly different in terms of
gaming behaviors and routines. As the result, an individual player would only fall
under one category of players, but can switch between player types at other times.
Validation of Bartle Test
While Bartle‘s Player Types are a well-known model of player categories that
provides important insight to player's motivations and behaviors in gaming, Yee employed his study and intended to validate Bartle‘s 4-Types Player model. Many
similar traits and characterizes were found between the players types which Bartle had
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initially proposed. Therefore, based on the feedbacks from the participants, Yee (2007) suggested merging Bartle‘s 4-Types into three categories by classifying
players‘ common motivations and interests.
Achievement Social Immersion
Advancement Progress,
Table 2: Validation of Bartle's Quotient
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Other Classification of Players
According to Puentedura (2008), gamers fall into two types: casual gamers and
hardcore gamers. In terms of purchasing games, casual gamers are likely to purchase
only the highly popular games while hardcore gamers buy and play many games.
Casual gamers enjoy short sessions of gaming as recreational activities to have fun
whereas hardcore gamers spend arduous amount of time on gaming while enjoying
challenge, progression and mastering of the games. Hardcore gamers prefer and
tolerate complex controls of game mechanics as they have absorbed the skills
involved. The significant difference between hardcore and casual players is the life
style of gaming. Hardcore players see gaming as a social component of their lives
while casual gamers merely takes gaming as pure entertainment purposes.
Moreover, Adams (2000) took the idea and define it further with notably proclaimed
Designers Notebook entry "Casual vs. Core" (2000), he categorized gamers as falling
into one of two categories -- the hardcore and the casual. Using the 15 Factor
Classification from his research, Adam's developed the Gamer-Dedication scale to
further solidify his research.
Factor Weighting
1. Play games over many long sessions 10
2. Discuss games with friends/bulletin boards 10
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3. Comparative knowledge of the industry 10
4. Much more tolerant of frustration 9
5. Indications of early adoption behaviour 9
6. Desire to modify or extend games in a creative
way
8
7. Technologically savvy 7
8. Have the latest high-end computers/consoles 7
9. Play for the exhilaration of defeating (or
completing) the game
7
10. Hunger for gaming-related information 6
11. Engaged in competition with himself, the
game, and other players
6
12. Willingness to pay 5
13. Prefer games that have depth and complexity 3
14. Time started playing games relative to the age
of the industry
2
15. Prefer violent/action games 1
Table 3:15 Factors of Classification Table
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Figure 1: the Gamer-Dedication Scale
- Ultra casual or non-gamers. A person obtaining a low score from the 15
Factors of Classification belong to a casual gamer or even a non-gamer. "Ultra
casual" gamers have potential for further exploitation as they clearly
demonstrated at least some interest in gaming. As long as the person has some
kind of experience with games or interest in them, the individual can belong in
here.
- Casual. With a higher score than the above category, casual gamers show a
mild response to the 15 Factors. Though casual gamers aren't indifferent about
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gaming, they display a reserved level of interest. They can potential engage in
gaming, but the likelihood of enjoying the games are slim.
- Transitional/moderate. "Moderate" gamers would generally have greater
knowledge and experience of games than the previous categories, but don't
necessarily update with the latest games or information about the industry.
- Hardcore. Consistent scores across all 15 factors, hardcore gamers show a
strong indication and are likely to possess greater gaming-related knowledge
and experience. Furthermore, they will spend considerably more time and
resources on games than the preceding categories.
-Ultra hardcore (obsessive). Even though few gamers fall into this category,
those who do are likely to take the hobby of gaming very seriously, and devote
significant resources to it. This gaming behavior might potentially become a
social problem or likely to cause negative consequences.
Professional Players
In a society of expertise and specialized skills, gaming has transformed from
mere casual enjoyment and self-entertainment to an enormous spring of business and
career opportunities. Professional gaming can be lucrative for top players,
incorporated with high salary earning and entertainment value. One of the world’s
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best StarCraft 2 players, Jang “MC” Min Chul of South Korea, has earned $365,000 playing in StarCraft 2 tournaments, disregarding incomes from sponsors and
game-streaming websites (Groen, 2013). As many players strive to become
professionals in gaming, such occupation has only emerged in the 21st century. While
this path of career may not be as stable, this particular expertise is, undoubtedly,
considered a profession in the concurrent society. However, in order to identity what
makes a profession a 'profession', studies of professionalization involve consideration
of both the characteristics of profession and the process by which these characteristics
are attained. Numerous scholars have conducted research to define and re-examine the
idea of profession. According to McGongie's Attribute Model (2006), criteria are
developed first to define the standards of the profession. Until all the criteria are met,
which its services are for the public good, can an occupation become a profession. On
the other hand, the Process Model employs a sequence of events to define a
profession with a five stage process in which each stage has seamless reciprocals from
the previous stage. The initial stage occurs when the community finds the needs for a
particular occupation to become full-time, followed by the second stage of
establishing training or educational programs with the incorporation of expertise and
knowledge. In the third stage, as a professional association is formed to construct its
professionalism, qualifications are developed and certified to differentiate its services
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from other occupations. The last two stages compose the formation of the code of
ethics and gaining the support of law as the profession engages in political action such
as lobbying for legal protection, reorganization of title and work activities
(McConnell, 2004).
Figure 2: Profession
Furthermore, Roach(1992) defines profession by identifying the specific
qualifications of professionalism as having:
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- To meet formal education and entry requirements
- Autonomy over the terms and conditions of practice
- A code of ethics
- A commitment to service ideals
- A monopoly over a discrete body of knowledge and related skills.
However, many scholars doubt the possibility of any occupation to fit the criteria of
these traits. Therefore, these specific characteristics of professionalism serve as an
umbrella to regulate and define professions.
Operational Definition of a Professional Gamer
As the emergence of professional gamers in the contemporary world, it is
necessary for this research to be conducted in specific qualifications of defining
professional gamers. Some players might be highly involved in the LoL community
that are renowned and active. Others might be professional though they are only
involved part-time that competes in small tournaments or have not been qualified as
the top teams in Taiwan. Therefore for the purpose of the research, we differentiate
the professionals from the others by the following:
- High skilled in designated game with many hours of training
- Having/had an official team with a gaming organization to support the players
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- Main income of individuals comes/came from gaming organizations and sponsors
- Having/had to compete in tournaments in Taiwan or international stage.
Literature Review Part 2
RQ2: What are the motivations of professional gaming for professional players?
To grasp the motivations of professional gamers, we need to first find the
common motivations of gaming itself in order to address the professional aspect.
Motivation of Gaming
Much research has been done to identify the motivations behind playing online
gaming. The motivations and behaviors associated with playing online games could
be an immense indicator to professional players in their expertise.
Learning to Play is a Shared Experience
In the world of MMORPGs, the players learn the game as they play with/without
other gaming backgrounds. Humphreys (2003) describes how EQ is played and
reformed through online gaming. He described the MMORPGS world as having a
wide variety of skills that are sharpened and forged through game quests. While some
skills are acquired in game, some have to be built deliberately, gaining access to much
powerful levels. However, as players encounter harder levels, mere self-taught skills
aren't enough to conquer the game. Therefore, Humphreys(2003), in the process of
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studying EQ, described his experience and spent many days maneuvering his way
around the game. Luckily, another player assisted him with player-created websites of
detailed maps and connections. Humphreys also discovered websites with “guides on
how to play different classes in the game" and "how to beat bosses", and other various
guides. (p. 84). He then proceed to announce that new players learn from others who
are more experienced. In addition, Steinkuehler (2004) conducted an ethnographic
study of Lineage and found that gaming is a shared experience as players distribute
gaming sources with their fellow players, exchange tips, create repositories of
information, and participate in discussion. JellyBean (played by the researcher), was
“coached” by Myrondonia, an experienced player. Not only did the experienced
player know how to play the game (gather treasure, defend oneself, and game
shortcuts) but also know how to socialize with other players, how to conduct oneself,
and other common courtesies within the game. Even though most MMORPGS can be
played individually, true mastery of the game can only be achieved through
collaboratively working with other players and develop bonds to form fellowships
amongst the players (Galarneau, 2005). As the result, learning to play is a shared
experience that formulate knowledge and expertise.
Gaming and Learning
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Online gaming is a great way to motivate and learn to adapt into the real world.
Shaffer (2005) stated that video games provide tremendous opportunities allowing
players to interact in a virtual entity and receive novel experiences from the
newly-created identities and roles. From example of the famous online game Sims
Online, Players can derive real life experiences from intense campaigning, political
stimulated debates, and judicial system restructuring, and many other technical
simulations. Another game, Railroad Tycoon, enacted scenarios with players
grappling with economic and geographic issues similar to those of railroad engineers
in the 1800s. In addition, some online games provide players the availability to make
the connection between concepts learnt in the classroom and incorporation of those
concepts onto the real world applications. In simulation games, players can learn from accessing varieties of vehicles and construction machines. As Shaffer describe it, “...
by creating virtual worlds, games integrate learning and doing”(p. 6). Moreoever,
gaming worlds offer to develop meta-cognitive monitoring skills and discern patterns
in events and uncover hidden relationships (Bonk, 2005). The in-game scenarios can
also foster and stimulate critical thinking and problem solving skills to students as
well as the professionals.
Teamwork in Gaming
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In virtual online gaming, teamwork is of necessity to be able to complete tedious
quests and various skill competitions. When players form in teams, a union has
greater accuracy of an organized raid to defeat a certain boss as compared to a lesser
organized team. Therefore, a player with high leadership skills are seen as treasures
and worth campaigning in order to advance in game, amounted to a kind of social
capital in virtual space that can be utilized for mobilizing resources and asking for
help from other gamers (Jakobsson, 2003). As the result, gaming requires certain
communication skills and leadership ability. Hussain (2007) employed a research on
the effect of multi-player gaming on American soldiers. 45 soldiers participated in
this study and resulted in marvelous discoveries. The study had shown that
multi-player games could aid randomized individuals into an organized team, working
together for a specific goal. In addition, those participated in the online game had
significant improvement in teamwork behaviors who had gone through successive
missions in the game. It was observed that the soldiers learned and executed more
effective strategies and decision-making as they phased throughout the game.
Similarly, another study was conducted to test the effect of 3-D virtual world, Second
Life, on education classes (Ye, 2007.) The game was implemented as a collaborative
and communication tool in the classroom to facilitate interaction between students.
After the simulation, 72% of students reported to experience effectiveness in
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communication and collaboration skills by gaming. As the result, these students had
developed teamwork skills using such game.
Communication Skills
Guilds are defined as “named groups that socialize and play together”
(Nardi ,2006). Guilds vary in scales with large guilds more than 100 members or a
small, handful players, based on geography. Many guilds compose of
highly-motivated players that may be intensively goal-driven whereas some may
display casual mood in gaming. Most guilds have their own chat channels to socialize
with other members to connect with each other and develop bonding. Online game
play, by virtue of its social interactive dimension, can foster organizational skills like
leadership, coordination and communication skills (Freitas, 2006). Therefore, the
success of a victorious operations and missions is heavily dependent on effective team
communication to produce effective task delegation, member recruitment and
mentoring,new strategies, mediation of conflict within teams, or negotiation of
rewards. These communication skills and organizational qualities could all be derived
from online gaming.
Leadership
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In many online games, leadership equalities could be found in many players. For
example, in LoL, 5 players are randomized to form a team to play against another
players of five. Naturally, a player with leadership skills would guide and lead the
team to victory in various strategies and goal-oriented communications. Players are,
then, easily able to differentiate the skills and competency levels of each other, and
thus helpings leaders to make decisions accordingly. Similarly, in MMORPGS,
becoming the leader of a guild involves actual participation and leadership skills of a
real organization, with directing guild events and providing the vision to the guild
members. Skills like managing crisis, handling hostility and negative attitudes,
empowering group members, and encouraging team members are all crucial to online
gaming and real life organizations alike. Since rewards and virtual benefits are greatly
involved in guilds, mediating conflict and maintaining relationships skills determine
the great attributes of a leader. Thus, personal guild dynamics can become an inhibitor
to the guild mission and therefore, maintaining harmony and cohesiveness within the
guild members is a must quality of a great leader (International Business Machines
Corporation, 2007). In addition, displaying professionalism from guild leaders will
allows members to stay focused on the mission objectives instead of getting
allows members to stay focused on the mission objectives instead of getting