The chapter purports to present the framework and the methodology of the study.
Research procedures, including research design, sample, data collection, questionnaire design, and the use of measurement will also be discussed in this chapter. The operational definitions of variables in this study are proposed in the measurement section. Statistical tools in analyzing the data will also be introduced in the data analysis section.
Research Framework
The framework was proposed based on the literature review. The framework illustrates how motivations may impact affective commitment with the moderating effects of perceived justices among volunteers. The different types of motivation were proposed to have positive and significant impact on the affective commitment among volunteers. The perceived organizational justices were described to have significant moderating effects on the relationship between motivations and affective commitment.
The research framework of the study is shown in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1. Research framework
Research Hypothesis
The hypotheses of the study were proposed as follows:
Hypothesis 1: Motivations have a significant and positive impact on affective
commitment.
Hypothesis 1a: The intrinsic motivation has a significant and positive impact on
affective commitment.
Hypothesis 1b: The extrinsic motivations (career development, social
interaction, reactivity, self-esteem, social, values, understanding, and protective) have a significant and positive impact on affective commitment.
Hypothesis 2: Perceived organizational justice among volunteers will strengthen the relationship between types of motivation and affective
Affective
commitment.
Hypothesis 2a: Perceived distributive justice among volunteers will strengthen
the relationship between types of motivation and affective commitment.
Hypothesis 2b: Perceived procedural justice among volunteers will strengthen
the relationship between types of motivation and affective commitment.
Hypothesis 2c: Perceived interactional justice among volunteers will strengthen
the relationship between types of motivation and affective commitment.
Research Procedure
Eight steps of procedures were performed to conduct the study. In the first step, the researcher identified the population of interest and the problem occurring among volunteers in the non-profit organization. Then, the researcher reviewed literature to figure out whether there are variables that purports to investigate the problem. The variables of the study were identified through the review of literature and moved on to the development of research topic and featuring the purpose and the importance of the study. Research framework and hypotheses were developed from the literature review.
To measure the variables, instruments were identified and were reviewed by experts.
Since some items of the adopted instruments were modified for the study, a pilot test was conducted to ensure the initial validity and reliability of the measurements. After the instruments were tested, the final data were collected and analyzed. Finally, the findings and conclusions are reported from the results of the data analysis.
Figure 3.2. Research procedure
Research Design
Given the importance of retaining volunteers in the NPO, an empirical study was conducted to test volunteers’ perception of organizational justice on their commitment to the organization. While volunteers were driven through different types of motivations, it may impact their willingness to stay in the organization as well as their persistence in contributing to the society. A quantitative research approach was designed to test the proposed hypotheses. Participants were asked to complete a questionnaire regarding their perceptions of justice, commitment to the organization,
Step 2: Review Literature
Step 3: Develop Research Topic and Purpose
Step 4: Develop Research Framework and Hypotheses
Step 5: Develop Research Instrument
Step 6: Conduct Expert Review and Pilot Test
Step 7: Collect Data and Analyze Data
Step 8: Present Research Findings
Step 1: Identify Problem and Population of Interest
and their motivations in choosing the organization to volunteer. Statistical procedures were performed to arrive at the study’s findings and conclusions.
Sample
The target population of the study was the volunteers of an international humanitarian and non-governmental organization (referred to as the foundation from now on). The foundation was founded as a charity organization based in Hualien, Taiwan in 1966. The voluntary organization is consisted of approximately 10 million members internationally, with a network of volunteers and employees across 47 countries. Their volunteers are recognizable worldwide by their blue and white uniforms, which in some western countries give them the name of “blue angels.” The foundation focuses on four notable endeavors: Charity, Medicine, Education, and Humanity. The foundation was also awarded with a special consultative status at the United Nations Economic and Social Council. Many of the volunteers recruited themselves into the organization, while some joined through referrals by friends or family ties.
Volunteers are managed under an organizational structure of He-Xin, He-Chi, Hu-Ai, and Xie-Li. Every branch is consisted of a He-Xin executive management team of three to five senior volunteers who provide guidance and strategy in managing programs and events for the branch. The He-Chi is a group of program specialists who serve in different tracks of managing cases, medical, educational, and disaster reliefs. The Hu-Ai is the team leader of volunteers in a branch; he or she supports He-Chi’s programs and plans yearly events for all volunteers. The Xie-Li is
the individual who coordinates volunteers to support recurring programs and emergency events. The accessible population was the volunteers serving in Taiwan and overseas branches including China, Thailand, Malaysia, Vietnam, Myanmar, Japan, Canada, United States, and Australia.
Data Collection
The pilot test was conducted with 57 samples. After confirming the validity and reliability of the measurement, the final data collection was conducted through the months of April and May 2015. Convenient sampling technique was applied to collect data, in which the researcher distributed questionnaires to volunteers in a non-profit organization through the researcher’s personal network. A total of 550 paper-based
questionnaires were distributed, and 506 were returned. Among 506 questionnaires, 432 are valid and analyzed in the study with a valid response rate of 78.5%.
The researcher was able to access volunteers in the same organization that are from local Taiwan branch and overseas branches. To control the non-response error, a cover letter was written in the beginning of the questionnaire to explain the importance of the research which is to help improve retention among volunteers in the organization. The letter also guaranteed the confidentiality of the respondents. The questionnaire was printed and folded into two-halves of an A3 paper. Incentives (i.e.
small accessories and snacks) were provided to encourage response rate.
Questionnaires were distributed through team leaders, an executive worker who is responsible with overseas volunteer, and a professor who works in the foundation’s university. These distributors explained the importance of the study when handing the
questionnaire and guaranteed the respondents’ answers were highly confidential.
Incentives were provided to the distributors for helping the researcher. In addition, the researcher travelled to the foundation’s headquarter for three days to meet the team leaders and also collect data from overseas volunteers who were there for an annual training event. The researcher also went to the foundation’s hospital to collect data.
Souvenirs were provided for the team leaders who helped the researcher collect data at their branch and send the completed questionnaires back to the researcher through post mails.
Questionnaire Design
The questionnaire was designed to collect data on the samples’ demographic information, volunteers’ motivation, perceived organizational justice, and affective commitment. The items in the questionnaire were in English and initially published as Western measurement scales. The research samples were all Taiwanese volunteers and overseas Taiwanese volunteers; therefore, the language used in the questionnaire was translated into Mandarin Chinese. To minimize common method bias, the measurements were rated in different length of scales (i.e. 5 point and 7 point Likert scale). Also, the measurements were purposefully ordered in such a way that the moderator variable was rated first, dependent variable the second, and then the independent variables in the questionnaire.
Measurements
The measurements used for the study variables include control variables, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, organizational justice, and affective
commitment. The complete measurements and instructions of the questionnaire are shown in Appendix: Measurements and Questionnaire. To control the measurement error, published instruments were used.
Control Variables
The control variables country of residence, work status, years of volunteering, certification, and supervisory role were included in the analysis of this study. The demographic information below were chosen based on the rationale and literatures described in the previous chapter.
Country of Residence. Volunteers in Taiwan may have higher commitment
levels than those that reside in other countries due to the lack of language barrier in delivering the organization’s values to the local community. The overseas volunteers, usually a Taiwanese volunteer, who serve in a foreign country, need to learn how to cope and interact with the local volunteers. The researcher used country of residence as a control variable because it may affect volunteers’ level of commitment in the organization. Country of residence was measured with one item: Country of residence.
The response options were Taiwan and other countries. ‘Taiwan’ was dummy-coded as 1 and ‘others’ as 0 for data analysis.
Work Status. As for the work status, volunteering is strongly associated with the
income (Independent Sector, 2002). Salaried people have more money to donate, while retired people, students, and housewives have more time to devote. Work status was measured with one item: Work Status. The response options were unemployed, at school, working, and retired. The ‘unemployed’ and ‘retired’ categories were grouped
and dummy-coded as 1, while the ‘at school’ and ‘working’ categories were grouped and dummy coded as 0 for data analysis.
Years of volunteering. The years of volunteering is a factor that will impact
volunteers’ level of commitment. Volunteers who have volunteered for a long time have integrated their values with the organization; therefore they may feel a higher level of affection with the organization.
Certification. Certified volunteers should have more commitments to the
organization because they are delegated with more responsibilities in helping the organization to deliver social welfares to the community. They are also expected to influence more people to join the organization. Certification was measured with one item: Certified volunteer. The response options were dummy-coded as 1 for ‘yes’ and 0 for ‘no’ in the data analysis.
Supervisory Role. Volunteers with supervisory roles in the organization lead
others in achieving the organization’s goals and mission. Supervisors need high levels of commitment first, so that they are able to motivate their subordinating volunteers to carry out the programs and events. Supervisory role was measured with one item:
What is your position in the foundation? The response options were volunteer/member, Xie-Li team (vice) leader, Hu-Ai team (vice) leader, Ho-Chi team (vice) leader, and He-Xin core administrative team. ‘Volunteer/member’ was dummy-coded as 0, while the four supervisory categories of ‘Xie-li team (vice) leader’, ‘Hu-ai team (vice) leader’, ‘Ho-Chi team (vice) leader’, and ‘He-xin core administrative team’ were coded as 1 for data analysis.
Volunteer Motivations
Intrinsic Motivation. Intrinsic motivation is defined as “the doing of an activity
for its inherent satisfaction rather than for some separable consequence” (Ryan &
Deci, 2000, p.56). People with intrinsic motivations perform an activity through one’s inherent interest and enjoyment. To assess intrinsic motivation, McAuley, Duncan, and Tammen’s (1987) 7 items Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) was shortened to 6 items, shown in Table 3.1. Item 6 was removed because of similarity with item 1. The measurement used a 5–point Likert scale, ranging from ‘1’ “strongly disagree” to ‘5’
“strongly agree”. The score of intrinsic motivation was aggregated from the six 1 I enjoyed doing this activity very
much.
I enjoyed doing volunteer activities very much.
2 This activity was fun to do. Volunteer activities were fun to do.
3 I thought this was a boring activity.
(R)
I thought volunteer activities were boring.
4 This activity did not hold my attention at all. (R)
Volunteer activities did not hold my attention at all.
5 I would describe this activity as very interesting.
I would describe volunteer activities as very interesting.
(continued)
Table 3.1. (continued)
6 I thought this activity was quite enjoyable.
Eliminate item
7 While I was doing this activity, I was thinking about how much I enjoyed it.
While I was doing volunteer activities, I was thinking about how much I enjoyed it.
Note. Adapted from “Psychometric Properties of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory in a Competitive Sport Setting: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis,” by E. McAuley, T.
Duncan, and V. V. Tammen. 1987, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 60(1), 48-58. Copyright 1987 by the Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport.
Extrinsic Motivation. Extrinsic motivation refers to “the construct that pertains
whenever an activity is done in order to attain some separable outcome” (Ryan &
Deci, 2000, p.60). Esmond and Dunlop’s (2004) “Volunteer Motivation Inventory”
was applied to assess volunteers’ motivation on a 5–point Likert scale ranging from ‘1’
“strongly disagree” to ‘5’ “strongly agree”. The extrinsic motivation scale has ten dimensions with a total of 44 items, shown in Table 3.2. The dimensions include career development, recognition, social interaction, reciprocity, reactivity, self-esteem, social, values, understanding, and protective. Each dimension is made up of a minimum of 3 items. Each extrinsic motivation construct will have a separate score aggregated from the items in its respective dimension. Based on the result from the pilot test, the recognition and reciprocity dimensions were removed in the final data collection due to low internal consistency reliability. In the pilot test, the Cronbach’s alpha reliability for recognition was -.128 and reciprocity was .465. In Esmond and Dunlop’s (2004) scale validation process of 2,444 volunteers across 15 nations, both
dimensions of recognition and reciprocity were shown to have the lowest Cronbach’s alpha reliabilities of .63 and .69. Thus, in the final scale, the types of extrinsic motivation: recognition (items 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) and reciprocity (items 14, 15) were removed. The final measurement for extrinsic motivation was reduced to 37 items.
Table 3.2.
Scale of Extrinsic Motivation
Dimensions Extrinsic Motivation Career
Development
1 I volunteer because volunteering gives me an opportunity to build my work skills.
2 I volunteer because I feel that I make important work connections through volunteering.
3 I volunteer because I feel that volunteering will help me to find out about employment opportunities.
4 I have no plans to find employment through volunteering. (R) Recognition
(Removed)
5 Being appreciated by my volunteer agency is important to me.
6 Being respected by staff and volunteers at the agency is not important to me. (R)
7 I do not need feedback on my volunteer work. (R) 8 I like to work with a volunteer agency, which treats their
volunteers and staff alike.
9 I feel that it is important to receive recognition for my volunteering work.
Social Interaction
10 I volunteer because I look forward to the social events that volunteering affords me.
11 The social opportunities provided by the agency are important to me.
12 I volunteer because I feel that volunteering is a way to build one’s social networks.
13 I volunteer because volunteering provides a way for me to make new friends.
(continued)
Table 3.2. (continued)
Self-Esteem 14 I volunteer because I feel that volunteering is a feel-good experience.
15 I volunteer because I feel that volunteering makes me feel like a good person.
16 I volunteer because I feel that volunteering makes me feel important.
17 I volunteer because I feel that volunteering makes me feel useful.
18 I volunteer because I feel that volunteering keeps me busy.
Social 19 I volunteer because my friends volunteer.
20 I volunteer because people I’m close to volunteer.
21 I volunteer because people I know share an interest in community service.
22 I volunteer because others with whom I am close place a high value on community service.
23 I volunteer because volunteering is an important activity to the people I know best.
Protective 24 I volunteer because doing volunteer work relieves me of some of the guilt for being more fortunate than others.
25 I volunteer because volunteering helps me work though my own personal problems.
26 I volunteer because volunteering is a good escape from own troubles.
27 I volunteer because no matter how bad I am feeling, volunteering helps me forget about it.
28 I volunteer because by volunteering I feel less lonely.
Reciprocity (Removed)
29 I volunteer because I believe that you receive what you put out in the world.
30 I volunteer because I believe that what goes around comes around.
(continued)
Table 3.2. (continued)
Reactivity 31 I like to help people, because I have been in difficult positions myself.
32 Volunteering gives me a chance to try to ensure people do not have to go through what I went through.
33 I often relate my volunteering experience to my own personal life.
34 Volunteering helps me deal with some of my own problems.
Values 35 I volunteer because I am concerned about those less fortunate than myself.
36 I volunteer because I am genuinely concerned about the particular group I am serving.
37 I volunteer because I feel compassion toward people in need.
38 I volunteer because I feel it is important to help others.
39 I volunteer because I can do something for a cause that is important to me.
Understanding 40 I volunteer because I can learn more about the cause for which I am working.
41 I volunteer because volunteering allows me to gain a new perspective on things.
42 I volunteer because volunteering lets me learn through direct hands-on-experience.
43 I volunteer because I can learn how to deal with a variety of people.
44 I volunteer because I can explore my own strengths.
Note. Adapted from “Developing the Volunteer Motivation Inventory to Assess the Underlying Motivational Drives of Volunteers in Western Australia,” by J. Esmond and P. Dunlop. 2004, Perth: CLAN WA. Copyright 2004 by the CLAN WA Inc.
Affective Commitment
The affective commitment was described as “the attachment of an individual’s fund of affectivity and emotion to the group” (Kanter, 1968, p.507), and also as “a
partisan, affective attachment to the goals and values of the organization, to one’s role in relation to goals and values, and to the organization for its own sake, apart from its purely instrumental worth” (Buchanan, 1974, p.533). Mowday et al., (1979) defined affective commitment as “the relative strength of individuals’ identification with and involvement in an organization” (p.27). To measure affective commitment, Allen and Meyer’s (1990) measurement on affective commitment was utilized in this study. The affective commitment scale consists of 8 items with a 7-point Likert scale ranging from ‘1’ “strongly disagree” to ‘7’ “strongly agree”. To avoid error responses, the reverse coded items 5, 6, and 8 were modified. The modified items are shown in Table 3.3. The score of affective commitment was aggregated from the eight measurement items. A high score for these items represented a higher level of affective commitment.
Table 3.3.
Scale of Affective Commitment
Original Items Modified Items 1 I would be very happy to spend the
rest of my career with this organization.
I would be very happy to spend the rest of my lifetime with this organization.
2 I enjoy discussing my organization with people outside it.
I enjoy discussing this organization with people outside it.
3 I really feel as if this organization’s problems are my own.
I feel like “part of the family” at this organization.
6 I do not feel “emotionally attached”
to this organization. (R)
I feel “emotionally attached” to this organization.
7 This organization has a great deal of personal meaning for me.
No modification
8 I do not feel a strong sense of belonging to my organization. (R)
I feel a strong sense of belonging to this organization.
Note. Adapted from “The Measurement and Antecedents of Affective, Continuance and Normative Commitment to the Organization,” by N. J. Allen and J. P. Meyer.
1990, Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63(1), 1-18. Copyright 1990 by The British Psychological Society.
Perceived Organizational Justice
Distributive justice is defined as “the extent to which the outcomes are appropriate, given the individuals’ contribution to the organization” (Colquitt, 2001,
p.386). In other words, distributive justice deals with individuals’ perception on resource allocation (whether the resource is distributed fairly and equally), and is also concerned with the support they received (whether they are supported when contributing to the organization). Colquitt (2001) described procedural justice as “the procedures used to arrive the individual’s outcome” (p.386). The interactional justice was proposed into two dimensions: the interpersonal justice – individuals are treated with respect and sensitivity and the informational justice – individuals were explained with the rationale for decisions made thoroughly (Bies & Moag, 1986; Shapiro, Buttner, & Barry, 1994).
To measure the three dimensions of organizational justice, this study adopted
To measure the three dimensions of organizational justice, this study adopted