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Table 1-1 Comparison among the Mg alloys, Al alloys, Ti alloys, steels and plastics
Material Cast Mg
Wrought
Mg Steel Cast Al
Wrought
Al Ti Plastics (PC/ABS) Alloy/
Grade AZ91 AZ31 -H24
Galva-nized A356-T6 6061-T6 Ti-3Al
Dow Pulse 2000 Process/
Product Die cast Sheet Sheet Die cast Extrusion Injection molding Density
(g/cm3) 1.81 1.77 7.80 2.76 2.70 4.2 1.13
Elastic Modulus
(GPa)
45 45 210 72 70 140 2.3
Yield Strength
(MPa)
160 220 200 186 275 925 53 Ultimate
Tensile Strength
(MPa)
240 290 320 262 310 1000 55
Elongation
(%) 3 15 40 5 12 16
5 at yield and 125 at
break Melting
Temp.
(oC)
598 630 1515 615 652 1600 143 (softening
temp.)
Table 1-2
The standard four-part ASTM designation system of alloy and temper for the magnesium system [7]
First part Second part Third part Fourth part
Statement
Indicates the two principal alloying element
Indicates the amount of the two principal elements
Distinguishes between different alloys with the same percentage of the two principal alloying elements
Indicates condition (temper)
Method
Consists of two code letters representing the two main alloying elements arranged in order of decreasing percentage (or alphabetically if percentage are equal)
Consists of two numbers corresponding to rounded-off
percentage of the two main alloying
elements and arranged in same designation in first part
Consists of a letter of the alphabet assigned in order as
compositions become standard
Consists of a letter followed by a number ( separated from the third part of the designation by a hyphen
Example
A- Al E- rare earth H- Th K- Zr M- Mn Q- Ag S- Si T-Sn W- Y Z- Zn
Whole numbers Letters of alphabet except I and O
F- as fabricated O- annealed H10 and H11-strain hardened
H23, H24 and H26- strain hardened and partially annealed T4- solution heat treated
T5- artificially aged only
T6- solution heat treated and artificially aged
Table 1-3
The effect of separate solute addition on the mechanical properties [8]
Alloying element
Melting and casting behavior Mechanical and technological properties
Corrosion behavior I/M produced
Ag Improves elevated temperature tensile
and creep properties in the presence of rare earths
Detrimental influence on corrosion behavior
Al Improves castability, tendency to microporosity
Solid solution hardener, precipitation hardening at low temperature (<
120oC)
Minor influence
Be Significantly reduces oxidation of melt surface at very low concentration (< 30 ppm), leads to coarse grains
Ca Effective grain refining effect, slight suppression of oxidation of the molten metal
Improve creep properties Detrimental influence on corrosion behavior
Cu System with easily forming metallic glasses, improves castability
Detrimental influence on corrosion behavior, limitation necessary
Fe Magnesium hardly reacts with mild steel crucibles
Detrimental influence on corrosion behavior, limitation necessary
Li Increases evaporation and burning behavior, melting only in protected and sealed furnaces
Solid solution and precipitation hardening at ambient temperatures, reduce density, enhances ductility
Decreases corrosion properties strongly, coating to protect from humidity is necessary
Mn Control of Fe content by precipitating Fe-Mn compound, refinement of precipitates
Increases creep resistivity Improves corrosion properties due to iron control effect
Ni System with easily forming metallic glasses
Detrimental influence on corrosion behavior, limitation necessary
Rare earth
Improve castability, reduce microporosity
Solid solution and precipitation hardening at ambient and elevated temperatures; improve elevated temperature tensile and creep properties
Improve corrosion behavior
Si Decreases castability, forms stable silicide compounds with many other alloying elements, compatible with Al, Zn and Ag, weak grain refiner
Improve creep properties Detrimental influence
Th Suppresses microporosity Improves elevated temperature tensile and creep properties, improves ductilities, most efficient alloying element
Y Grain refining effect Improves elevated temperature tensile and creep properties
Improves corrosion behavior
Zn Increases Fluidity of the melt, weak grain refiner, tendency to
microporostiy
Precipitation hardening, improves strength at ambient temperatures, tendency to brittleness and hot shortness unless Zn refined
Minor influence, sufficient Zn content compensates for the detrimental effect of Cu
Zr Most effective grain refiner, incompatible with Si, Al and Mn, removes Fe, Al, and Si from the melt
Improves ambient temperature tensile properties slightly
Table 1-4 Mechanical properties of magnesium matrix composites by various liquid-state processing methods Magnesium matrix
composites Processing D
(μm) d (μm)
E (GPa)
σ0.2
(MPa)
UTS (MPa)
Hardness (HV)
Elongation
(%) Reference
Pure Mg; 30 vol% SiC casting + extruded 20 40 59 229 258 -- 2 [34]
Pure Mg; 4.3 vol% SiC casting -- 25 45 112 191 -- 0.057 [36]
ZK51A; 15 vol% SiCw (whiskers with diameter of 0.3~1 μm and
lengths of 15~50 μm)
squeeze casting -- -- 58 305 325 -- 1.2 [38]
AZ91; Al18B4O33(whiskers with diameter of 0.5~1 μm and lengths
of 10~30 μm)
squeeze casting + 250oC annealing
100 hours -- -- 71 270 368 -- 0.96 [39]
AZ91; 20 vol% SiC with Al(PO3)3
binder (whiskers with diameter of 0.1~1 μm and lengths of 30~100
μm,)
squeeze casting -- -- 85 220 355 175 1.38 [40]
AZ91; 20 vol% SiC without Al(PO3)3 binder (whiskers with diameter of 0.1~1 μm and lengths
of 30~100 μm,)
squeeze casting -- -- 77 202 314 174 1.29 [40]
Pure Mg; 30 vol% Y2O3 casting -- 0.33 -- 268 363 -- 15 [41]
Pure Mg; 30 vol% Y2O3 casting + extruded 0.88 0.33 65 344 455 -- 0 [41]
AZ91; 10 vol% TiC semi-solid slurry stirring -- 5 -- -- 214 83 4 [37]
AZ91; 5 wt% SiC ultrasonic -- 0.03 -- -- -- 135 -- [42]
**D: grain size, d: particle size
Table 1-5 Mechanical properties of magnesium matrix composites by various solid-state processing methods Magnesium matrix
composites Processing D
(μm) d (μm)
E (GPa)
σ0.2
(MPa)
UTS
(MPa) Hardness Elongation
(%) Reference
AZ91; 10 vol% SiC PM + extrusion 17.2 8 58 271 360 -- 3 [44]
AZ91; 10 vol% SiC PM + extrusion 24 30 58 243 350 -- 3 [44]
AZ91; 10 vol% SiC PM + extrusion 28.2 50 58 236 350 -- 2 [44]
Pure Mg; 10 vol % TiB2 PM -- 10 -- -- -- 45 HB -- [45]
Pure Mg; 20 vol % TiB2 PM -- 10 -- -- -- 66 HB -- [45]
Pure Mg; 20 vol % TiB2 PM -- 10 -- -- -- 90 HB -- [45]
Pure Mg; 10 vol % B4C ball milling + PM -- 6 -- -- -- 44 HB -- [46]
Pure Mg; 10 vol % B4C ball milling + PM 6 -- -- -- 133 HB -- [46]
Pure Mg; 0.5 wtl% Al2O3 PM 61 0.05 42.5 169 232 44 HV 6.5 [47]
Pure Mg; 2.5 wt% Al2O3 PM 31 0.05 44.5 194 250 70 HV 6.9 [47]
**D: grain size, d: particle size
Table 1-6 Microstructure-Mechanical property-fracture correlations for metal matrix composites [50]
Microstructure condition Mechanical property response
Addition of reinforcement Increase in strength, modulus, fatigue life, creep properties, abrasion resistance, impact strength, high temperature strength, decrease in ductility (elongation to failure), and fracture toughness
Reinforcement type In general, fibrous reinforcements give higher mechanical properties than particulate at equal volume fraction. Particulate reinforcement, however, gives higher elongation to failure and fracture toughness.
Reinforcement orientation Fibrous reinforcement aligned along test axis gives approximately 25%
higher strength than particulate or transverse fibrous reinforcement.
Fatigue and creep properties are improved in aligned fibrous composites.
Ductility and fracture toughness is generally lower in the aligned material.
Reinforcement distribution Banding and or clustering enhances crack initiation and growth, and hence lowers strength, ductility, and toughness.
Particle size Mp effect on modulus; strength properties decrease with particle size increase
Aspect ratio Influence modulus, strength, fracture toughness, ductility and fracture mechanism
Interface condition Strong bonding increases modulus and strength but decreases ductility.
Can be embrittled as a of excessive result of excessive precipitation and/or diffusion of alloying ingredients or impurities to interface
Matrix phases Normal precipitate phases increase yield and ultimate strength. Impurity particles and preferential precipitation decrease strength, fracture toughness, fatigue, creep, and ductility
Heat treatment Heat treatment increases mechanical properties; however, overaging minimizes the benefits. Precipitation kinetics can be altered by the addition of reinforcement; hence time and temperature for peak aging may differ
Secondary processing Secondary processing affects microstructure and hence mechanical properties. Extrusion aligns fibrous reinforcements but induces banding or reinforcements-free areas. Rolling homogenizes microstructure, giving higher properties, but can damage matrix-reinforcement bonds and lead to overaging. Material must be heat-treated to regain properties.
z These comments assume well-bonded reinforcements.
Table 1-7 HSRSP and LTSP in the magnesium alloys
Material Grain size, (μm)
Temperature, (oC)
Strain rate, (s-1)
Elongation,
(%) Reference
PM AZ91 1 300 1x10-2 280 [77]
270 1x10-2 140
IM AZ91 4.1 300 2x10-2 250
275 2x10-2 330
PM ZK61 1.2 250 1x10-2 350
300 1x10-1 420
250 1x10-1 310
IM ZK61 2.2 300 1x10-2 400
250 1x10-2 250
300 1x10-1 150
250 1x10-1 200
AZ91 1.7 275 1x10-2 300 [78]
PM ZK61 0.6 300 1x10-2 300 [70]
IM ZK60 1.2 1x10-2 360
AZ31 2 300 1x10-2 1000 [71]
2 250 1x10-2 405 [71]
0.7 200 1x10-2 233 [22]
AZ91 0.7 200 6x10-5 661 [72,73]
1 175 6x10-5 326
3.1 200 7x10-5 956
ZK61 0.5 200 1x10-3 640 [79]
ZK60 1.4 200 1x10-5 1083 [80]
AZ31 0.7 150 1x10-4 461 [22]
Table 1-8 HSRSP and LTSP of magnesium matrix composites
Matrix d, μm Reinforcement Processing
Size of reinforcement,
μm
Vf,
% T, K T/Tm
a ε&, s-1 σ,
MPa
Elong.
%
m-
value Ref.
Mg-4Al 1.4 Mg2Si Rapid Solidification +
Extrusion 0.7 28 788 0.85 1x10-1 8 368 0.5 [69]
Mg-4Zn 0.9 Mg2Si Rapid Solidification +
Extrusion 0.8 28 713 0.77 1x10-1 10.0 290 0.5 [69]
Mg-4Al 1.4 Mg2Si Rapid Solidification +
Extrusion 1 20 773 0.84 1x10-1 10.8 336 0.3 [68]
ZK60 0.3 SiC PM + Extrusion 2 17 723 0.78 1.3 -- 360 0.33 [67]
ZK60 0.5 SiC PM + Extrusion 2 17 673 0.73 1 35.9 350 0.5 [70]
Mg-5Zn -- TiC Vortex casting +
Extrusion + rolling 2-5 10 743 0.8 1.67x10-2 9.4 205 0.33 [71]
Mg-5Zn 2 TiC Vortex casting +
Extrusion 2-5 20 743 0.8 6.67x10-2 8.0 295 0.43 [71]
Mg-5Al <2 AlN Vortex casting +
Extrusion 0.72 15 673 0.73 5x10-1 33.8 236 0.39 [72]
Table 1-9 Superplasticity application of Al alloys modified by friction stir processing
Al Alloy
Rotational speed,
rpm
Advancing speed
Grain size,
μm
Temp.,
oC
Strain rate,
s-1
Elong.
% Ref.
7075 T651 -- 150
mm/min 3.3 490 1x10-2 1000 [2]
7075 400 4 ipm 7.5 500 3x10-3 1042 [126]
7075 350 6 ipm 3.8 480 1x10-2 1250 [126]
2024 T4 300 25.4
mm/min 3.9 430 1x10-2 525 [127]
Al-4Mg-1Zr -- -- 1.5 525 1x10-1 1280 [128]
A356 700 203
mm/min 3 530 1x10-3 650 [129]
Al-4Mg-1Zr 350 25.4
mm/min 0.7 175 1x10-4 240 [130]
Al-8.9Zn-2.6Mg-
0.09Sc 400 25.4
mm/min 0.68 310 1x10-2 1165 [131]
Al-8.9Zn-2.6Mg-
0.09Sc 400 25.4
mm/min 0.68 220 1x10-2 525 [131]
Table 2-1
Chemical compositions of the AZ61 Mg alloy (in wt%)
Mg Al Zn Mn Si Fe Cu Cl Ni
AZ61B Bal. 6.14 0.88 0.21 0.038 0.0035 0.0027 0.0022 0.0004
Table 2-2 The sample designation for the FSP modified Mg alloys Processing parameters
Sample
name Rotational speed, rpm
Advancing speed, mm/min
Tilt angle,
o
Pass number,
#
Subsequent compression
along ND after FSP
1P45 800 45 1.5 1 X
4P45 800 45 1.5 4 X
1P90 800 90 1.5 1 X
4P45-cp 800 45 1.5 4 O
Table 2-3 The sample designation for the FSP Mg based composites Processing parameters
Sample
name Groove number, #
Rotational speed, rpm
Advancing speed, mm/min
Tilt angle,
o
Pass number,
#
1D1P 1 800 45 1.5 1
1D2P 1 800 45 1.5 2
1D3P 1 800 45 1.5 3
1D4P 1 800 45 1.5 4
2D1P 2 800 45 1.5 1
2D2P 2 800 45 1.5 2
2D4P 2 800 45 1.5 4
Table 3-1 The recrystallized grain size of the modified AZ61 Mg alloy made by FSP
AZ61 billet 1P45 4P45 1P90
Average grain
size, μm 75 7.0 7.8 3.4
Table 3-2 Summary of the average SiO2 cluster size and the average AZ61 matrix grain size in the 1D (with Vf~5%) and 2D (with Vf~10%) FSP specimens.
1D1P 1D2P 1D3P 1D4P
SiO2 cluster size, nm 600 210 210 190
Ave grain size, μm 3.1 2.8 2.0 1.8
Pred. grain size, μm 2 0.7 0.7 0.6
2D1P 2D2P -- 2D4P
SiO2 cluster size, nm 300 200 -- 120
Ave grain size, μm 1.5 1.5 -- 0.8
Pred. grain size, μm 0.7 0.5 -- 0.3
* Predicted grain size is according to the Eq. (3), and the particle size is the cluster size.
Table 3-3 XRD results for the 1P45, 4P45, and 4P45-cp modified alloy samples
[(1010)/(1011)]sample
/
[((1010)/(1011)]random
[(0002)/(1011)]sample
/
[(0002)/(1011)]random
[(1012)/(1011)]sample
/
[(1012)/(1011)]random
[(1120)/(1011)]sample
/
[(1120)/(1011)]random
[(1013)/(1011)]sample
/
[(1013)/(1011)]random
Random Mg powders 0.35 / 0.35 = 1 0.41 / 0.41 = 1 0.20 / 0.20 = 1 0.18 / 0.18 = 1 0.18 / 0.18 = 1 1P45, T plane 0.13 / 0.35 = 0.37 1.16 / 0.41 = 2.83 0.34 / 0.20 = 1.7 0.08 / 0.18 = 0.44 0.71 / 0.18 = 3.94 1P45, H Plane 1.50 / 0.35 = 4.29 0.07 / 0.41 = 0.17 0.04 / 0.20 = 0.20 0.71 / 0.18 = 3.94 0.02 / 0.18 = 0.11 1P45, L-center plane 0.50 / 0.35 = 1.43 0.09 / 0.41 = 0.22 0.06 / 0.20 = 0.30 0.24 / 0.18 = 1.33 0.04 / 0.18 = 0.22 1P45, L-retreating 0.17 / 0.35 = 0.49 0.68 / 0.41 = 1.66 0.35 / 0.20 = 1.75 0.08 / 0.18 = 0.44 0.71 / 0.18 = 3.94 4P45, T plane 0.12 / 0.35 = 0.34 1.73 / 0.41 = 4.22 0.18 / 0.20 = 0.90 0.06 / 0.18 = 0.33 0.32 / 0.18 = 1.78 4P45, H Plane 0.40 / 0.35 = 1.14 0.03 / 0.41 = 0.07 0.00 / 0.20 = 0 0.22 / 0.18 = 1.22 0.01 / 0.18 = 0.06 4P45, L-center plane 0.50 / 0.35 = 1.43 0.09 / 0.41 = 0.22 0.06 / 0.20 = 0.30 0.28 / 0.18 = 1.56 0.04 / 0.18 = 0.22 4P45, L-retreating 0.25 / 0.35 = 0.71 0.85 / 0.41 = 2.07 0.30 / 0.20 = 1.50 0.13 / 0.18 = 0.72 0.90 / 0.18 = 5.00 4P45-com, T plane 0.68 / 0.35 = 1.94 0.89 / 0.41 = 2.17 0.24 / 0.20 = 1.20 0.34 / 0.18 = 1.89 0.34 / 0.18 = 1.89 4P45-com, H plane 0.5 / 0.35 = 1.43 4.88 / 0.41 = 11.90 0.03 / 0.20 = 0.15 0.23 / 0.18 = 1.28 0.16 / 0.18 = 0.89 4P45-com, L-center 1.46 / 0.35 = 4.17 0.08 / 0.41 = 0.20 0.06 / 0.20 = 0.30 0.75 / 0.18 = 4.17 0.06 / 0.18 = 0.33
4P45-com,
L-retreating 0.29 / 0.35 = 0.82 0.25 / 0.41 = 0.61 0.30 / 0.20 = 1.50 0.33 / 0.18 = 1.83 0.30 / 0.18 = 1.67
Table 3-4 XRD results for the Mg based composites of the 1D samples
[(1010)/(1011)]sample
/
[((1010)/(1011)]random
[(0002)/(1011)]sample
/
[(0002)/(1011)]random
[(1012)/(1011)]sample
/
[(1012)/(1011)]random
[(1120)/(1011)]sample
/
[(1120)/(1011)]random
[(1013)/(1011)]sample
/
[(1013)/(1011)]random
Random Mg powders 0.35 / 0.35 = 1 0.41 / 0.41 = 1 0.20 / 0.20 = 1 0.18 / 0.18 = 1 0.18 / 0.18 = 1 1D1P, T plane 0.16 / 0.35 = 0.46 3.14 / 0.41 = 7.66 0.29 / 0.20 = 1.45 0.04 / 0.18 = 0.22 0.69 / 0.18 = 3.83 1D1P, H plane 1.19 / 0.35 = 3.40 0.23 / 0.41 = 0.56 0.10 / 0.20 = 0.50 0.68 / 0.18 = 3.78 0.09 / 0.18 = 0.50 1D1P, L-center plane 1.91 / 0.35 = 5.46 0.26 / 0.41 = 0.63 0.07 / 0.20 = 0.35 0.97 / 0.18 = 5.39 0.09 / 0.18 = 0.50 1D1P, L-retreating 0.28 / 0.35 = 0.80 0.51 / 0.41 = 1.24 0.44 / 0.20 = 2.2 0.08 / 0.18 = 0.44 0.97 / 0.18 = 5.39 1D2P, T plane 0.22 / 0.35 = 0.63 1.91 / 0.41 = 4.66 0.28 / 0.20 = 1.40 0.07 / 0.18 = 0.39 0.47 / 0.18 = 2.61 1D2P, H plane 2.53 / 0.35 = 7.23 0.16 / 0.41 = 0.39 0.05 / 0.20 = 0.25 1.31 / 0.18 = 7.28 0.04 / 0.18 = 0.22 1D2P, L-center plane 2.18 / 0.35 = 6.23 0.55 / 0.41 = 1.34 0.10 / 0.20 = 0.50 1.38 / 0.18 = 7.67 0.13 / 0.18 = 0.72 1D2P, L-retreating 0.24 / 0.35 = 0.69 0.18 / 0.41 = 0.44 0.39 / 0.20 = 1.95 0.06 / 0.18 = 0.33 0.21 / 0.18 = 1.17 1D3P, T plane 0.18 / 0.35 = 0.51 2.66 / 0.41 = 6.49 0.18 / 0.20 = 0.90 0.13 / 0.18 = 0.72 0.37 / 0.18 = 2.06 1D3P, H plane 0.91 / 0.35 = 2.60 0.03 / 0.41 = 0.07 0.03 / 0.20 = 0.15 0.44 / 0.18 = 2.44 0.02 / 0.18 = 0.11 1D3P, L-center plane 0.97 / 0.35 = 2.77 0.15 / 0.41 = 0.37 0.09 / 0.20 = 0.45 0.32 / 0.18 = 1.78 0.08 / 0.18 = 0.44 1D3P, L-retreating 0.08 / 0.35 = 0.23 0.10 / 0.41 = 0.24 0.20 / 0.20 = 1.00 0.02 / 0.18 = 0.11 0.11 / 0.18 = 0.61 1D4P, T plane 0.22 / 0.35 = 0.63 1.38 / 0.41 = 3.37 0.20 / 0.20 = 1.00 0.13 / 0.18 = 0.72 0.28 / 0.18 = 1.56 1D4P, H plane 0.43 / 0.35 = 1.23 0.10 / 0.41 = 0.24 0.09 / 0.20 = 0.45 0.26 / 0.18 = 1.44 0.07 / 0.18 = 0.07 1D4P, L-center plane 0.37 / 0.35 = 1.06 0.08 / 0.41 = 0.20 0.08 / 0.20 = 0.40 0.18 / 0.18 = 1.00 0.06 / 0.18 = 0.33 1D4P, L-retreating 0.21 / 0.35 = 0.60 0.67 / 0.41 = 1.63 0.13 / 0.20 = 0.65 0.10 / 0.18 = 0.56 0.18 / 0.18 = 1.00