Not all suitable habitats are occupied by sambar deer today. While many studies recommend reintroducing target animals to the suitable but unoccupied habitats (e.g., Klar et al., 2008; Kuemmerle et al., 2010), it would be not appropriate in this case.
This is because sambar deer are not under immediate threat of extinction in Taiwan;
hence, hasty introductions may cause unanticipated damage to the local environment (Côté et al., 2004). Thus, we believe that monitoring the expansion process of sambar deer populations and associated environmental impacts is a more appropriate
management technique at present.
With respect to the 7,865 km2 area of suitable habitats, 30% was located outside the protected areas. The largest patch, which was 260 km2, was located at Mt. Baigu, while other patches were located to the north-east of Taroko National Park, to the east of Yuli Wildlife Refuge, to the east and west of Guanshan Wildlife Refuge, and to the west of Yushan National Park (Figures 1b and 3a). We recommend that the
government should consider establishing a protected area at Mt. Baigu, in parallel to expanding the ranges of other wildlife refuges and national parks. In winter of 2011-2012, 2 of the collared deer moved southward for over 8 km and exited the boundary of Taroko National Park. We lost their signals soon after the movements, yet we did not know the reason of signal lost. A guess was that they were hunted. This event may support the recommendation that natural environments adjacent to protected areas should be protected. The sambar deer is a flagship species for conservation in Taiwan; hence, the conservation of its habitats would likely benefit other large mammals, such as Reeves muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi), Formosan serow (Capricornis swinhoei), and the black bear (Ursus thibetanus).
39
The habitats of sambar deer in Taiwan were divided by the mountain highways.
We hypothesized that gene flow between these patches has been limited in the recent decades. Gene flow is an important factor for conservation because the division of a species into small populations results in genetic characteristics being strongly
influenced by inbreeding and genetic drift (Frankham, 1996). To address this issue, it is important to study the genetic structure of sambar deer sub-populations, and then attempt to establish connections among patches to create a viable metapopulation in the future (Kuemmerle et al., 2010; Monterrubio-Rico et al., 2010). Therefore, we recommend that a number of suitable sites that are in close vicinity to the 3 highways should be selected to monitor the process of population expansion of sambar deer.
Our study suggested that the sambar deer highly preferred to use hemlock forest.
It is consistent with the previous studies which showed a high deer damage proportion of hemlock forest (Weng et al., 2009; 2010; 2011). Thus, a long term monitoring on hemlock forests would be essential in the future. In addition, pine and cypress forests were not favorable to sambar deer in this study but were exploited in other studies (Stafford, 1997; Weng et al., 2009; 2011). We suggested that the exploitation of pine and cypress forests by deer probably can be an indicator of deer density, i.e. the deer will use these forests more frequently when its population density is too high.
Furthermore, the previous studies on sambar deer impacts to forest in Taiwan usually focused on high elevation areas. However, we suggested that the nearby medium elevations, especially those free of human presence and lack of relative information, should be monitored in the future because we found the seasonal movement behavior of sambar deer in this study.
40
Conclusion
In this study, we produced a map showing the potential distribution of sambar deer in Taiwan and highlighted areas that require increased monitoring and/or protection priorities. Furthermore, we comprehensively studied habitat selection by sambar deer at multi-scales in the field by using habitat suitability models and GPS telemetry. We found that the selection of environmental factors occurred at different scales, supporting a scale-dependent hypothesis. At the geographical-range scale, human disturbance shaped the distribution pattern of the Formosan sambar deer in Taiwan. At the home-range scale, the deer preferred flatter slops and mesic aspects in all year and selected different vegetation types and elevations at different seasons. At the within-home-range scale, solar duration might be one of deer’s main concerns.
These results suggested that the main factor affecting sambar deer expansion was human-related disturbance, not the natural environmental variables. In addition, a difference of deer habitat use between daytime and night was observed at the temporal scale, which indicated the importance of forest to the deer. Moreover, the data of sambar deer space use in its native range was established in this study. These results provide an important foundation for future studies and management
implications on sambar deer in Taiwan, in addition to providing a baseline reference for other countries where this species is naturally distributed.
41
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