Summary

As this research comes to an end there are a few questions that should be briefly discussed within the last chapter. The objective and focus of this study was to facilitate future translators with translating culture-specific- items. By using The Art of War as a case study, the researcher aimed to gather what strategies the three translators utilized when encountering Chinese CSI. Some other questions that this research also aims to answer are: how culture and language coexist, how do the three translators approach and translate cultural-specific items, what recurring translation principles will be applied when rendering culture-specific items, which Translation Studies methods are most suitable to translate CSI.

This research used various research methods to conduct the study. As previously

mentioned in Chapter 3, this research uses a proposed hybrid categorization process from Peter Newmark’s and Espindola and Vasconcellos’s culture categorization process. With the

researcher’s proposed CSI categorization process, she has then identified 20 CSI examples found throughout all chapters in Sun Tzu’s The Art of War. Next, after identifying the CSI examples, the researcher then analyzed to see if the 20 CSI were indeed translated using Vinay and Darbelnet’s seven translation procedures and Mona Baker’s omission strategy. To further elaborate the steps above, the researcher first selected and read Newmark’s and Espindola and Vasconcellos’s culture categorization methods; since Newmark’s theories are often taught in Translation Studies and Espindola and Vasconcellos’s CSI categorization process have been repeatedly utilized in several researches. After reading about the methods of categorizing CSIs, the researcher has come to believe that since the two selected categorization processes both contain problems, the researcher has then decided to take categories from both theorists, to

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propose and create a hybrid CSI categorization list that will then be utilized in this research.

After proposing a CSI categorization method, the researcher selected two well-known translation theorists: Vinay and Darbelnet’s seven translation procedures and Mona Baker’s omission strategy. These two theorists and their ideologies are also often discussed in Translation Studies.

The researcher has selected to utilize Vinay and Darbelnet’s procedures, due to their systematical process of analyzing translational differences between languages. The other theorist, Mona Baker, is also a well-established figure within Translation Studies, and over time, her theory on omission, which has been applied in various syntactic methods (equivalence at and above word level,) has been frequently used by translators. After selecting translation strategies that might be possibly utilized to translate CSIs within Sun Tzu’s treatise, the researcher then cross analyzed the strategies with the discovered 20 CSI examples, to determine if the CSI examples were indeed translated with Vinay and Darbelnet’s procedures and Baker’s omission.

5.2 Findings

Upon completion of analyzing the 20 discovered CSI, the translator noticed several occurrences. To address our first question of frequency of strategy use, each of the selected translators used various methods to translate the CSIs. The following data was collected by counting the frequency of strategies used to translate all 20 CSIs per translator. Let’s first take a look at Griffith, of the 8 types of procedures, Griffith frequently used literal translation (8 instances), then adaptation (5 instances), equivalence (3 instances), borrowing (2 instances), calque and omission (one instance per strategy) and did not use transposition or modulation.

Sawyer on the other hand used literal translation (8 instances), then adaptation (5 instances), borrowing (3 instances), transposition, modulation, equivalence and omission (one instance per

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strategy), calque was not used. The last translator, Cleary used adaptation (8 instances) the most, omission (6 instances), literal translation (4 instances), modulation and equivalence (one instance per strategy), and did not use borrowing, calque nor transposition. With the aggregated data of the frequency of strategies used, the researcher has come to the conclusion that literal translation and adaptation along with omission are frequently used to solve the CSI mystery. This also depends on the translator, and their background. All the data stated in this paragraph can be found in table 4.

To address the next question, is there a certain solution as to how one should translate a specific CSI category? First let us examine the data in table 4:

 4 CSIs are Toponyms

 4 CSIs are Measuring systems

 7 CSIs are Customs & Ideas

 5 CSIs are Idioms & Metaphors

 For a total of 20 CSI occurrences found within in The Art of War

Let us first examine the first category. There are 4 CSI examples in the toponyms category, with 12 total possible strategies being used in this category. Therefore, there are 8 uses of literal

translation and 4 uses of adaptation to translate all CSI examples in the toponyms category. From this data, the researcher concludes that the majority of the strategies utilized by the 3 translators, literal translation is the appropriate strategy here. Moving onto the next CSI category, measuring systems has a total of 4 examples, with 13 possible strategies (Griffith used 2 strategies for the example 宿，萁，壁，翼，軫). In this category, the frequently used strategy is adaptation which was used 7 times, then borrowing was used 4 times followed by omission which was used twice. Therefore, when translating CSIs that are considered to be a measuring system, Griffith,

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Sawyer and Cleary believe that using adaptation is the best option. The next category is customs and ideas, here there are 7 CSI examples, for a total of 21 possible strategies. In this category, literal translation was used 6 times, adaptation 5 times, omission and equivalence 4 times each, borrowing and modulation once each. With the data discovered, the researcher has come to the conclusion that this category is very dependent on the example. Although there are 6 uses of literal translation, there are also high uses of other procedures, such as adaptation, omission and equivalence. Therefore, the researcher believes that for CSIs that are of customs and ideas category, it is best to keep in mind, what type of example one is translating, then select the appropriate method. The last category contains idioms and metaphors, with a total of 5 examples, and 16 possible strategies (Sawyer like Griffith, used more than 1 strategy for (虛，實). The most frequent translation utilized within this category is literal translation with 7 occurrences, adaptation and omission were both used twice, and modulation, transposition, calque borrowing and equivalence were all used once. Ergo, from the accumulated data, when translating idioms and metaphor type CSIs, the translators analyzed in this research often used literal translation.

The other procedures were used as well, but not frequently, thus one must consider type of idiom and metaphor to select the appropriate method of translating the CSI.

To address the next question, were there any reoccurring translation strategies used, or same strategies that were used by different translators? By analyzing the two tables below, we are able to notice that, all three translators frequently used literal translation and adaptation to translate CSIs. With Cleary, particularly fond of using omission. The last question at hand, was is there a pattern as to how each translator handled the CSIs? The researcher has discovered that Griffith and Sawyer, used literal translation to translate all toponyms, whereas Cleary, used adaptation. As for the measuring systems category, Griffith and Sawyer used a mix of borrowing

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and adaptation procedures, but on the other hand Cleary would often omit or use adaptation measuring system CSIs. In regards to customs and ideas category, Griffith frequently used equivalence, literal translation and adaptation. Sawyer used literal translation, borrowing and adaptation, whereas Cleary took a different approach and used modulation, adaptation, literal translation and omission. In the last category, idioms and metaphors, Griffith and Sawyer often used literal translation, with the additional use of transposition, modulation. Cleary, also used literal translation, in addition to equivalence, adaptation and omission. With the discovered findings, the researcher believes that everything is circumstantial, but when translating specific CSIs, it is a great option to use literal translation, adaptation, omission and borrowing. These four procedures allow the source text’s CSI to be transferred into the target text, in addition to having a clearly translated target text sentence.

Table 3 Frequency of Strategy Usage

Translation Strategies

Griffith Sawyer Cleary

Borrowing 2 3 0

Calque 1 0 0

Literal Translation

8 8 4

Transposition 0 1 0

Modulation 0 1 1

Equivalence 3 1 1

Adaptation 5 5 8

Omission 1 1 6

71 Table 4 Examples organized by proposed categorization process

Toponyms 1. 「九地九天」

Although this research aimed to discover possible translation strategies that can translate CSI, there inevitably will be limitations as well. The first limitation is the scope of the research.

In other words, since we are only examining Chinese CSIs and three English translations, this research will be limited in various aspects. For instance, this research is limited in terms of discovering all possible translation strategies and procedures for facilitate translating CSIs, since this research only utilized three English translations and only applied a few Translation Studies

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theories. The second limitation, derives from the translators’ background and their experience.

Since the three translators utilized within this research come from varying environment and lived in time periods, there will be differences in how each translator chooses to translate the CSI (as their views are vastly different). The third problem, is the limitations of the language’s culture, or in other words, since this research primarily focuses on ancient Chinese text that have been translated into English translations, the results and findings will be limited in the terms of application. Since, language and culture are bound together, the findings in this research will predominately be applied between Chinese and English language and their CSIs. In other words, the results here cannot be utilized when trying to analyze and translate Arabic or German

translations and their respective CSIs. But, the researches general strategy to analyze languages and their CSIs can be applied to analyze other languages, it is just the researches results that are limited in uses. Therefore, the method in which the three translators used to translate Chinese CSIs into English will be limited. Lastly, since this research only focuses on three English translations of The Art of War and utilizes only a handful of Translation Studies theories, the results will be finite, and we will not know for certain how other translators handled Chinese CSIs and how other Translation Studies theories might influence translations of those CSIs.

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5.4 Recommendations for Research

The following recommendations are offered in terms of related research to the field of translation:

 It is important to further investigate if other language’s CSI have the same correlation as Chinese and English CSI.

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 In terms of the best options for translating CSI; further research and by analysis of different Translation Studies strategies and theories would be a great contribution to the Translation Studies and linguistics community.

 In regards to CSI, there should also be consideration as to when the research material was produced. As each time period’s text, will vary, and reflect prominent culture ideologies of the time.

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