Survey of photovoltaic industry and policy in Germany
Technology improvements and cost reductions result from the exploration of improvement opportunities and the search for alternatives by individual actors. The industry structure impacts on their incentives and ability to pursue innovative activities and is therefore characterized for Germany (late 2009).
The German photovoltaic industry includes around 70 manufacturers (of silicon, wafers, solar cells, and modules), more than 100 PV equipment manufacturers, and employs more than 57,000 people. German PV industry sales surpassed the €9.5 billion mark in 2008, while PV equipment supplier sales accounted for an additional €2.4 billion(GTAI, 2009c). Fig. 1.8 shows the biggest PV manufacturers in Germany, with their respective capacities in 2009, along the (crystalline) PV production chain. The number of companies in the first stage of the PV production chain (dominated by Wacker Chemie AG) is small, polysilicon production and processing require intensive technical knowledge and substantial investment. Towards the end of the production chain, the number of manufacturers is larger, due to lower investment requirements and less knowledgeintensiveness required. There are also fully integrated companies combining wafer, cell, and module manufacturing, such as Solar World, Conergy and Sovello.
Fig. 1.8 PV manufacturers in Germany along production chain. Excluding companies active in thin film technologies, based on data from GTAI (2009a).
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Fig. 1.9 shows PV equipment manufacturers in Germany active in different stages along the crystalline production chain, in the field of thin film technologies, as well as in the areas of automation and laser processing. While some companies offer turnkey lines for thin film devices, crystalline cells or modules, other equipment producers supply specific tools, for instance tabbers and stringers for crystalline modules.
Fig. 1.9 PV equipment manufacturers in Germany. The legend shows only companies with 400þ employees, based on data from GTAI (2009b).
Equipment suppliers that have developed their skills in supporting manufacturing of semiconductors, chemicals, optics and glass, have devoted their expertise to PV manufacturing and have been instrumental in the successful development of the German photovoltaic cluster. Fig. 1.10 shows the activities of equipment manufacturers in the related semiconductor, medical, and automotive industries.
Since 1991, systematic governmental support schemes for PV installations have been implemented in Germany. The Electricity Feedin Act (Stromeinspeisegesetz 1991–1999/2000) was the first policy to provide incentives for renewable electricity generation. The “1000 Solar Roofs Initiative”, which was applied between 1991 and 1995, was the first PVspecific support scheme, and was followed in 1999–2003 by the “100,000 Solar Roofs Initiative”, which similarly provided loans at low interest rates for PV installations. These loans were granted by the stateowned German development bank (KfW). A feedin tariff scheme with PVspecific support levels was established in
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2000 (Renewable Energy Sources Act, EEG), and was amended in 2004 and 2009.
Fig. 1.10 PV equipment manufacturers in Germany—sector background (activity insectors).
Based on data from GTAI (2009b).
Fig. 1.11 gives an overview of the current PV support measures applicable in Germany. Within the German strategy of fostering the deployment of renewable energy sources, the feedin tariff scheme is the core element, supported by additional measures such as public support of R&D for PV technologies and investment support schemes for manufacturing plants.
Fig. 1.11 PV support measures in Germany (with main criteria applied to allocate support) and their target groups.
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The Renewable Energy Sources Act ErneuebarenEnergienGesetz (EEG) is applied to power generation from renewable energy sources, including wind, water, biomass, landfill, firedamp and biogas, as well as geothermal and solar energy. Among the supported technologies, it grants the highest feedin tariffs to electricity produced by photovoltaic devices. These tariffs are graded according to PV system capacity (with thresholds of 30 kW, 100 kW and 1000 kW) and installation types (rooftop and field installations). The feedin tariffs are paid for a time period of 20 years.
Table 1.7 gives an overview of the recent German PV feedin tariffs.
Table 1.7 PV feedin tariffs according to German EEG. Sources: (EEG, 2008; BMU, 2010b;
BNetzA, 2010b)
At the beginning of 2010, the tariffs saw a reduction of 11% and 9% (for rooftop installations ≤ 100 kW), respectively, in comparison to 2009 levels. However, as system prices fell much faster in 2009 than originally expected, the German government decided additionally to cut back the feedin tariff in July 2010 and October 2010, as shown in Table 1.7. The feedin tariff for groundmounted systems on agricultural fields was stopped in July 2010 (IEA, 2010). Between 2003 and 2009, the present value of the PV feedin tariff subsidy in Germany amounted to €4270 quintillion per year on average. New PV installations increased strongly in 2008 and 2010 (see Fig. 1.12), after the PV feedin tariff was raised in 2008, and after system prices decreased strongly in 2010. The total system expenditure for PV installations represented this development in the respective periods, as shown in Fig. 1.13. Additional national market stimulation schemes are provided by the stateowned German development bank (KfW) through the following loan programs for PV investments (IEA, 2009):
l ‘‘Erneuerbare Energien Standard’’: Loans for private PV investments;
l ‘‘Kommunal investieren’’: Loans for PV investments by communities and their enterprises;
l ‘‘KfW—Kommunalkredit’’: Loans for investment in the infrastructure of communities to save energy and change to renew able energies.
Germany offers different investment incentive programs which can be categorized into three groups:
l grants/cash incentives (including the Joint Task program and the Investment Allowance program);
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l reducedinterest loans(at national and state level); and l public guarantees (at state and combined state/federal level).
Fig. 1.12 World Annual PV Installations
Fig. 1.13 Total system expenditure for PV installations in Germany
The same conditions apply to German and foreign investors. Funding is provided by the German federal government, the European Union (EU), and the individual federal states of Germany.
The EU provides the legal and financial framework for public funding in all EU Member States.
Eligible industries, forms of investment and general program requirements are defined by each incentives program. Specific criteria within each program determine individual investment
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incentives rates. The highest incentive levels are usually offered to small and mediumsized enterprises (SMEs). In the following sections, we will focus on incentive levels for large enterprises, because that is the typical scale of PV manufacturers (the following criteria specify the size of large enterprises in the European Union: staff headcount ≥ 250 and annual turnover > €50 m or annual balance sheet total > €43 m).
Responsibility for renewable energies within the German Federal Government belongs to the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU). Research and Development on different aspects of PV is supported by the BMU, as well as the BMBF (Federal Ministry of Education and Research). While BMBF supported for PVR&D projects amounted to €19.5 million in 2008 (8 cooperative R&D projects were granted), the BMU’s R&D budget for PV totaled
€39.9 million, shared between130 projects (IEA, 2009). In comparison to these public PVR&D budgets, industrial R&D investments amounted to €163 millionin 2008 (BSWSolar, 2010).
Within the BMU funding activities, selection criteria for PV research projects are (BMU, 2010a):
l industry participation and networking structure, with preference on collaborative projects;
l development risk and implementation time;
l the possibility to spread research findings, while considering the protection of findings through patents.
Table 1.8 shows the distribution of the BMU funding. While waferbased silicon technologies received more than half of total funding, around onefifth was allocated to thinfilm technologies.
Support is also provided for alternative concepts such as concenrating photovoltaics.
Table 1.8 Newly approved PV funding from BMU.
In 2008, the BMBF setup networks aiming for the development of thinfilm PV cells with a focus on topics such as material sciences and the use of synergies with other research fields, such as microelectronics. Meanwhile, the development of organic PV cells is being addressed by a joint initiative with the industry. As part of the Federal HighTech Strategy, BMBF also supports the development of the ‘‘Solarvalley Mitteldeutschland’’ cluster, which covers most of the German PV industry.
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Within the initiative ‘‘Innovationsallianz Photovoltaik,’’ which was announced in 2010, BMU and BMBF will provide €100 million for new R&D projects during the next four years. The focus of this initiative is on improving production costs and efficiencies of photovoltaics. The European Union’s main instrument for funding research in Europe is the Seventh Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development (FP7). This program runs from 2007 until 2013.
From Energy Policy, by Thilo Grau, 2012.
New Words and Expressions
1. exploration [eksplә'reɪʃ(ә)n] n. 探测；探究；踏勘
2. alternative [ɔ l't ː ɜ n ː әtɪv; ɒl'tɜ n ː әtɪv] adj. 供选择的；选择性的；交替的 n. 二中 择一；供替代的选择
3. innovative activity 创新活动
4. equipment [ɪ'kwɪpm(ә)nt] n. 设备，装备；器材
5. surpass [sә'p ɑː s] vt. 超越；胜过，优于；非……所能办到或理解
6. account for 对……负有责任；对……做出解释；说明……的原因；导致；（比例）占
7. devote [dɪ'vәʊt] vt. 致力于；奉献
过去式 devoted 过去分词 devoted 现在分词 devoting 8. automotive industry 汽车工业；汽车制造业
9. applicable [ә'plɪkәb(ә)l; 'æplɪkәb(ә)l] adj. 可适用的；可应用的；合适的 10. foster ['fɒstә] vt. 培养；养育，抚育；抱（希望等） adj. 收养的，养育的
15. mediumsized ['mi:diәm'saizd] adj. 中型的，中等大小的；普通型的 16. allocate ['ælәkeɪt] vt. 分配；拨出；使坐落于 vi. 分配；指定
过去式 allocated 过去分词 allocated 现在分词 allocating 17. synergy ['sɪnәdʒɪ] n. 协同；协同作用；增效 复数 synergies
18. joint [dʒɒɪnt] n. 关节；接缝；接合处，接合点；（牛，羊等的腿）大块肉 adj. 共同 的；连接的；联合的，合办的 vt. 连接，贴合；接合；使有接头 vi. 贴合；生节 Notes
1. Towards the end of the production chain, the number of manufacturers is larger, due to lower
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investment requirements and less knowledgeintensiveness required.
参考译文：在生产链的终端，制造商的数量是比较多的，因为在此阶段需要的投资较少、
知识储备较少。
2. As part of the Federal HighTech Strategy, BMBF also supports the development of the
‘‘Solarvalley Mitteldeutschland’’ cluster, which covers most of the German PV industry.
参考译文：作为联邦政府的高技术战略的一部分，德国联邦教研部也支持 “德国太阳谷”
集群的发展，它涵盖了大部分的德国光伏产业。