This section describes research procedure, sample, and the instrument.
Research procedure
The research procedure is described in the following:
1. Literature review
Literature on cross-cultural adaptation, Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI), and translation equivalence were collected and reviewed.
2. Obtain the permission to translate the CCAI
The researcher contacted the CCAI publisher, Vangent Inc., via e-mail communication to obtain the permission to translate Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI) (Kelley & Meyers, 1995a) into Mandarin Chinese.
3. Back translation
The researcher who received TOEFL CBT scores 247 worked independently to forward translate the CCAI into Mandarin Chinese. Then, two bilinguals backward translated the Chinese version into English. They are second-year graduate students of the master program of International Workforce Education and Development at the National Taiwan Normal University. One received the certificate of the General English Proficiency Test (GEPT) at a high-intermediate level, and the other received TOEFL IBT scores 84. The differences between the original and back-translated versions were identified and then modifications of the Chinese version were made for inconsistencies.
4. Peer review
Not only the translators but also three second-year graduate students with the same educational background did review the translated version of the CCAI. The committee members were selected based on a certain level of English proficiency. A committee meeting was held to reach the consensus of the appropriateness of the
carefully to see whether the wordings or phrases used in the translation are appropriate in the Chinese culture. In addition, two psychologists in the CCAI publisher, Kelly and Gary, reviewed the translation and gave their comments on it as well. The translation of the CCAI was modified again on the basis of the reviewers’
comments.
6. Pretest the Chinese version of the CCAI
The translated version of the CCAI gone through the above-mentioned steps was administered to 37 students from National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, who joined the Taiwan Overseas Volunteers Orientation held by International Cooperation and Development Fund.
The purpose of the pre-test was to check respondents’ comprehension on the measure and how long it took to complete the CCAI. The feedback regarding the Chinese version of the CCAI was collected from the respondents. The translation of the CCAI was modified again on the basis of the respondents’ feedback.
7. Questionnaire delivery
The questionnaires, including the Chinese version of the CCAI as well as the demographic questions, were administered to the targeted sample.
8. Statistical analysis
Demographic statistics was conducted on the following variables: age, gender, education background, abroad experience, and language certificate. And scale scores by demographic characteristics were also analyzed.
Critical ratio was run before testing the reliability and validity of the Chinese version of the CCAI.
The reliability and validity of the Chinese version of the CCAI were established based on the sample participated in this study. Psychometric properties, including internal consistency (Cronbach’s α ), composite reliability (confirmatory factor analysis), and construct validity (confirmatory factor analysis) were tested.
9. Conclusion and suggestion
According to the results of the statistical analysis of the Chinese version of the CCAI, suggestions were made to adapt the Chinese version of the CCAI. In addition, the results will be used as a basis of cross-cultural comparison and further data gathering. The research procedure, Figure 3.1., is shown below:
Figure 3.1. Research procedure Literature review
Obtain the permission to translate the CCAI
Back translation
Peer review
Expert review
Pretest the Chinese version of the CCAI
Questionnaire delivery
Statistical analysis
Conclusion and suggestion
Sample
The respondents in this study were purposively sampled. The criteria of selecting the purposive sample include:
1. They have potential opportunities to interact with people from other cultures within two years. (e.g., Mandarin teachers; international volunteers; and graduate students in international trade/business program)
2. They are likely to be assigned international tasks within two years. (e.g., international volunteers; expatriates; and participants in international trade training program)
3. They have taken international affairs courses or training. (e.g., international business; international business; and training for overseas service)
The number of the sample in this study, 543 participants (N=543), were made up of three groups: participants in the International Trade Institute (N=346), graduate students in the international trade/business master program (N=79), and trainees joining the Taiwan Overseas Volunteers Orientation held by International Cooperation and Development Fund (N=118). Their basic information was described as follows:
1. International Trade Institute
International Trade Institute (ITI) is a trade-specialist training center which offers general courses of international trade, marketing, and language. It was found in 1987 as a part of Taiwan External Trade Development Council (TAITRA).
International Trade Institute (ITI) has three campuses: two in Hsinchu and one in Taipei. Since 2001, ITI-Hsinchu offers five residential post-graduate programs in trade and foreign languages. Three of them are comprehensive two-year programs: the English major, European major, and Japanese major. The rest of them are intensive one-year programs: the Business Major and English major. In addition, they offer an evening business English program as well. The ITI-Taipei offers day and evening classes in business English and trade.
Our target sample in ITI-Hsinchu consists of participants joining two-year programs in English and Japanese major as well as those joining one-year programs in English and business major. ITI-Taipei includes participants joining in the international trade program.
2. Graduate Institute of International Trade/Business
The graduate students in the international trade/business program in National
Taiwan University (NTU), National Chengchi University (NCCU), and National Kaohsiung University of Applied Science (NKUAS) participated in this study.
3. International Cooperation and Development Fund.
In 1996 and 1997, the International Cooperation and Development Fund (TaiwanICDF) government was built in the consolidation between the Committee of International Technical Cooperation (CITC) and the International Economic Cooperation Development Fund (IECDF). The TaiwanICDF's was developed for the purpose of strengthening international cooperation and enhancing foreign relations
One of the activities and operations of the International Cooperation and Development Fund is overseas volunteers. There are two different types of the overseas volunteers: the long-term and the short-term. The participants in this study are potential short-term overseas volunteers who joined the Taiwan Overseas Volunteers Orientation in Kaohsiung, Nanhua University, and Taipei.
The profile of the participants in this study is described as follows (Table 3.1.):
Table 3.1. The Profile of the Participants (N=543)
Group Number of
Participants International trade program 93
96A-two-year program in English major 58 96D-one-year program in English major 52 95B-two-year program in Japanese major 46 96B-two-year program in Japanese major 44 International Trade
Institution (ITI) (N=346)
96C-one-year program in business major 53 National Taiwan University (NTU) 25 National Chengchi University (NCCU) 40 Graduate Institute of
International Trade/Business (N=79)
National Kaohsiung University of Applied Science (NKUAS)
14
In Kaohsiung 38
In Nanhua University 35
International
questions designed by the researcher. Each part is described below.
1. The Chinese version of the Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory
The Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI) developed by Kelley and Meyers (1995a). It is “a training instrument designed to provide information to an individual about his or her potential for cross-cultural effectiveness” (Kelly and Meyers, 1995b, p.2).
This instrument has 50 items and is divided into four subscales: Emotional Resilience (ER), Flexibility/Openness (FO), Perceptual Acuity (PAC), and Personal Autonomy (PA). Each item is scored on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Definitely Not True) to 6 (Definitely True). Nine of the items distributed throughout the instrument are reversed-scored. The individuals circle the response to each item on the answer sheet according to how accurate each item describes them. Scores are calculated for the total scores and four scales (Emotional Resilience, Flexibility/Openness, Perceptual Acuity, and Personal Autonomy). In addition, each four subscale score is plotted on the CCAI self-Assessment Profile (see Kelley &
Meyers, 1995b, p.24). The profile graphically portrays the four subscale results and allows individuals internally compare with one another. Not only the numerical scores but also graphic representation does CCAI allow the individual to gain better understanding of his or her overall cross-cultural effectiveness and potential areas in which the individual has room to develop skills in relation to four dimensions. The basic assumption is that higher total score a person can get, more cross-culturally he or she can function. The brief descriptions of the scores on four dimensions are showed below.
Emotional Resilience (ER) (18items):
A high score on this dimension indicates the individual is able to deal with stresses and ambiguity in a new environment, and able to maintain a positive attitude and self-esteem.
Flexibility/Openness (FO) (15 items):
People who are scored high on this dimension tend to enjoy interacting with people from other cultures and view things from different perspectives.
Perceptual Acuity (PAC) (10 items):
People who are strong on this dimension have the capacity of interpreting accurately the verbal and nonverbal cues and then communicate with people from other cultures effectively.
Personal Autonomy (PA) (7 items):
People with high personal autonomy tend to “have strong sense of self as a separate and unique entity” (Kelley & Meyers, 1995b, p.18). It’s easy for them to make their own decisions, maintain their unique value system, and show respect for themselves and others.
In the CCAI manual, Kelley and Meyers (1995b) provide statistical information regarding the reliability and validity of the instrument. They are described as follows.
1.1. Reliability of the instrument
Table 3.2. presents the reliability of the CCAI established on the 653 respondents.
Kraemer and Beckstead (2003) established the reliability of the CCAI on 288 physical therapist students. The results showed that the estimated reliability of total scale and four subscales ranged from .59 to .90 (For details, see Chapter Two).
Table 3.2. Internal Consistency (Standardized Alpha) of the CCAI Scale
ER FO PAC PA Total
Number of Items 18 15 10 7 49*
Cronbach’s Alpha .82 .80 .78 .68 .90
* Item 15 (PAC) and 46 (FO) are duplicates.
Source: Kelley and Meyers, 1995b, p.31 1.2. Validity of the instrument
The CCAI manual (Kelley & Meyers, 1995b) provides information on its face, content, and construct validity. Jensma’s (1995) dissertation was a pilot study examining the predictive validity of the CCAI, using thirty seven missionaries. The results reveled that the CCAI failed to predict the relative adequacy of the missionaries’ cross-cultural adaptation. Davis and Finney (2006) used a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) approach to examine the four-factor structure of the CCAI. The results indicated that a poor fit of the structure of the CCAI. (For details, see Chapter Two). The 709 respondents who completed the CCAI instruments were sophomores
other cultures; (e) immigrants; (f) professional who work with the above groups (38-39). Though they stated that the CCAI are not limited to the above categories of people, it’s doubted that the sample in Davis and Finney’s (2006) study partly contributed to the poor fit of the structure. To avoid the same situation, the purposive sample in this study reached a level of similarity to (c) and (d) within two years.
1.3. The procedure for measure translation
The translation of the CCAI went through back translation, peer review, as well as expert review. There were five major findings after the process of the translation.
1.3.1. The advantage of back translation
Back translation helped identify the discrepancy between the original and back-translated version as Hofstede (2001) suggested. Take ER2 for example:
ER2: I feel confident in my ability to cope with life, no matter where I am.
Translation:不論身處何地，我對自己處理生活事宜的能力很有自信。
The phrase “my ability to cope with life” was back translated as “my living ability” (生活能力) which was different from the original meaning. It was then identified and replaced with a more accurate Chinese phrase (應對生活的能力).
However, later one expert thought such expression (應對生活) is seldom used in the Chinese usage. Thus, it was replaced with the phase, “deal with life” (處理生活事宜).
1.3.2. Word/Phrase choice
It’s hard to choose the right expression on the situation of no corresponding Chinese term or more than one corresponding Chinese term. Take ER3 and PAC2 as an example:
ER3: I can laugh at myself when I make a cultural faux pas (mistake).
Translation: 當我因不懂文化而做出失禮的事，我能一笑置之。
Since it was difficult to choose the suitable expression between “to laugh off something” (一笑置之) and “to find excuses to console oneself” (自我解嘲). Kelly and Gary suggested that the phrase, “to laugh off something”, was more appropriate because the English text indicates an attitude of not feeling badly about making a mistake, whereas “to find excuses to console oneself” implies a condition or emotion of feeling badly, perhaps from shame or a sense of low self-worth.
PAC2: I have a realistic perception of how others see me Translation: 我對別人如何看待我有實際的認知。
“Realistic” has several meanings in Chinese (真實的、實際的). The expert found the translation of the word “realistic” (真實的) didn’t clearly convey the original meaning in the translated version. Thus, the expression was replaced with “realistic;
actual” (實際的). The full sentence was modified to fit its original language structure.
1.3.3. Different sentence structures in Mandarin Chinese and English
Due to the sentence structure in Chinese different from that in English, some sentences were hard to translate well. The free translation with original meaning preserved was utilized instead of literal translation. Take FO4 for instance:
FO4: I like a number of people who don’t share my particular interests.
Translation: 在我喜歡的朋友之中，有一些人的興趣與我不同。
Based on the Chinese language structure, this item was literally translated as “I like people with many interests that are different from mine” (我喜歡很多興趣與我 不相同的人). Different from the original item, “many”, that is, a number of, was an adjective in front of “interests” instead of in front of “people”. Kelly and Gary suggested considering the English text from the structural perspective of “There are some people I like even though we have different interests.” Thus, the free translation was utilized.
1.3.4. The translation problem of slang
English slang is not easy to be translated into Chinese because sometimes it is a tough concept to convey in a language other than English with the same exact meaning. Among fifty items, PAC3 contains English slang, the benefit of the doubt.
PAC3: I am the kind of person who gives people who are different from me the benefit of the doubt.
Translation: 面對跟我不一樣的人，我會看他們好的一面。
Originally, the benefit of the doubt was translated as “place oneself in other’s
1.3.5. Implicit meanings within the item
Some implicit meanings concealed within the item were not easily identified even though back translation was utilized. Take PAC10 for example.
PAC10: In talking with people from other cultures, I pay attention to body language.
Translation: 我跟來自其它文化的人談話時，我會留意他們的肢體語言。
In the original translation, it was literally translated as “I will notice the body language.” (我會留意肢體語言). However, Kelly and Gary emphasized that body language refers to paying attention to the other person's body language instead of one’s own body language.
2. Demographic questions
Questions regarding gender, age, level of education, abroad experience, language certificates, and whether they are willing to accept an international assignment in the near future are included in the demographic questions for use of respondents’ personal profiles.