While most of the book titles are not given in Wuthering Heights, all the titled books are religious. These titled books include: the Bible/Testament, Prayer-books,
“The Helmet of Salvation,” “Broad Way to Destruction,” and A Pious Discourse delivered by the Reverend Jabes Branderham. Through a few more details, Brontё deliberately suggests that books in Wuthering Heights are largely religious in nature.
For example, the long-serving servant of Wuthering Heights, Joseph, has a “store of theology” (Brontё 229). In addition, when Catherine I and Heathcliff were children, they appeared to read nothing except for the religious books imposed on them by Joseph and Hindley. Why is it that so many religious books congregate in Wuthering Heights? To answer this question properly we need to examine the history of
religion-related publications first.
Since the early eighteenth century, British evangelical organizations had been distributing religious books. They did so because they wished to acquaint British people with the words and messages of God. Understandably, the Bible was the book most frequently distributed. But because the laboring class was the major target of these religious missions and because and the language of the Bible might be too difficult for them, religious tracts were thence produced instead of the Bible itself (Fyfe 27). The religious tracts were made as “short pamphlets” of no more than sixteen pages carrying
“a clear religious message” (Price 150; Fyfe 27, 32-33). Their format “aped”
chapbooks, which were a kind of frequently seen publication in the homes of the laboring class (Price 150).1 The mechanization of book production2 and the exemption
1 Chapbooks were small-sized pamphlets “measuring three and a half by six inches” and had been “the primary reading matter . . . for the poorer classes” since the mid-seventeenth century (Lam). Religious tracts imitated chapbooks’ style and the “simple bold-faced texts and woodcut illustrations” since such
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from taxes on knowledge3 made the cost of publishing these religious books low enough for the evangelical organizations to afford (Price 38; Fyfe 45). If measured by their claimed issues, Price suggests, the Victorian era was an age of tracts (150).4
A large number of religious materials, however, does not necessarily guarantee that the messages contained therein successfully reach the mind of their intended audience. Although more than half of the homes in Britain owned a religious book during 1830-48, it “was more often owned than used” (Colclough and Vincent 298).
Some people used the Bible mainly for “maintaining a private record of births and deaths,” and others used or sold it as if they were scrap papers (Colclough and Vincent 298; Price 158; Jackson 20). Such “inappropriate” uses of the Bible suggest that, although the evangelical organizations succeeded in distributing religious books widely, whether or not these books were read is another matter. Price points out: “Distributors of tracts and bibles faced a double bind, as worried that recipients would value the book for the wrong reasons as that they would refuse to value it at all” (156).
There are a large number of religious books in the house of Wuthering Heights, possibly because, for Emily Brontё, a Victorian writer, a religious book is a familiar object in her daily life. Religious books in Wuthering Heights do not only reflect their
imitation was agreeable to their readers (Lam; Price 150).
2 The manufacture of paper and books were mechanized respectively by the Fourdrinier brothers’
paper-making machine in 1807 (Fyfe 56) and the steam-driven high-speed printing press of Koenig and Bauer in 1812 (Landow; “Printing Yesterday and Today”). The advance in these technologies and the mechanization of book-binding since 1827 enabled the mass production of books (Raven 147).
3 The “taxes on knowledge” were an extension of the stamp duty imposed on all paper for publication by the 1712 Stamp Act, which demanded that the politics-related printed matters “had to be printed on stamped paper to demonstrate that [the publishers] had to pay the tax” (Fyfe 45; Price 141, 225; Unwin et al.). This act levied the stamp tax on all publications though its aim was “to make newspapers sufficiently expensive to restrict their circulation to only the well off and avoid the perils of mass circulation” (“Key Moments”; “A Brief Timeline”). Concerned with the influence of the French Revolution on the British laboring-class, the Parliament increased the stamp tax in 1797 to prevent the radicals from spreading politically-dangerous messages such as blasphemy and sedition (Fyfe 45; “A Brief Timeline”). The government began to reduce these taxes in 1836 and ultimately abolished it in 1861 (Price 141, 220; Fyfe 53).
4 For instance, the largest evangelical publisher by 1850 was the Religious Tract Society (1799) (Fyfe 32). The Religious Tract Society claimed that “[b]y the mid-1820s, [it] had already issued no fewer than 44.5 million copies of 280 different tracts. By 1850, it had issued over 450 million copies of 5,300 different publications. Over 19 million of those issues, and almost 200 of the new publications, had been in the previous year alone” (Fyfe 35).
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growing numbers in Victorian Britain. Through the drama surrounding religious books in her novel, Brontё skillfully demonstrates her worry that few people really practice what those books intend to teach their audience. If, as Price points out,
“[d]istributors of tracts and bibles . . . worried that recipients would . . . refuse to value [those tracts and bibles] at all,” so does Brontё. This worry can be inferred from the extent to which characters in Wuthering Heights turn a blind eye to one central Christian message: forgiveness.
Forgiveness, an important Christian virtue, is very likely to be a familiar presence in the religious tracts moving around Victorian Britain. As Richard Hughes Gibson has pointed out in his book, Forgiveness in Victorian Literature (2015), forgiveness is a topic that permeates nearly-all genres of Victorian literature (1). Since forgiveness is an “inescapably religious issue for Victorian writers” (Gibson 4), we can safely assume that it is one of the most common messages present in religious books and tracts in Victorian Britain. One detail of Wuthering Heights supports this
assumption. One of the religious books that attracts Lockwood’s attention is titled
“Seventy Times Seven, and the First of the Seventy First. A pious Discourse delivered by the Reverend Jabes Branderham” (Brontë 18). The title of this book alludes to “the parable of the unmerciful servant” in the Bible (“Matthew 18:21-35”).5 In this parable, Jesus tells Peter that he should forgive his brother until “seventy times seven” and acknowledges forgiveness as a requirement for going to heaven. The lesson of this parable is that “God will forgive us our sins if we forgive out neighbors’ sins, but that he will punish us according to our deserts if we act without pity towards our neighbors”
(Miller 188). One sign that Brontё is playing with this Christian lesson of forgiveness is that she does not only use “Seventy Times Seven” as the title of a religious book in
5 “The parable of the unmerciful servant” is the title given to Matthew 18:21-35 in the New International Version of the Bible. The King James Version I use here does not have a title, so I use the one of NIV to indicate the passage to which “Seventy Times Seven” alludes.
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Wuthering Heights. By adding “the First of the Seventy First” to “Seventy Times Seven,” Brontё deliberately undermines the Christian virtue of forgiveness. While Jesus teaches his disciples always to forgive their enemies, the numbers in his words serving only to emphasize a Christian’s unlimited capacity for forgiveness, Brontё insists on taking the numbers literally, suggesting that we can forgive our enemies only for a limited number of times (“Seventy Times Seven”) and that, once that quota are used up (“the First of the Seventy First”), we can retaliate as we please.
Indeed, Lockwood’s first dream bears this point out. In this dream, Lockwood and Joseph go to a chapel to listen to “the famous Jabes Branderham preaches from the text—‘Seventy Times Seven’” (Brontë 18). While the sermon seems to revolve around the Christian virtue of forgiveness, the congregation ironically chooses not to forgive.
After Lockwood stands up to accuse the preacher of delivering a tediously long speech, he finds himself attacked by his fellow audience who have very recently been taught the importance of forgiveness. Their unwillingness to bear with other people’s weakness demonstrates “legalistic, literalist readings of the Bible have reverted to a distorting insistence upon vengeance under the guise of Christian forgiveness” (Marsden 81).
Their readiness to attack their enemy is the polar opposite of the “perpetual and unconditional forgiveness” which the Bible wishes us to practice (81). The failure of this religious congregation to practice the virtue of forgiveness reveals Brontё’s awareness that even though the Christian message of forgiveness is present in a lot of books and tracts in Victorian Britain, not everyone is willing or able to live up to this ideal. The fact that Joseph, arguably the most religious man in Wuthering Heights, is unkind to disobedient children and always “fling[s] the curses on his neighbours,”
further exposes the gap between the multitude of religious books about forgiveness and the multitude of forgiving individuals (Brontë 33).
The religious books in Wuthering Heights themselves do not bring peace, even
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though forgiveness may well be a dominant message in them. In fact, considering that much of this novel revolves around hatred and revenge in the face of injustice,
characters in this novel tend to “recognize that a God conceived in the image of human judgment can offer little hope of redemption or transformation of the human
predicament” (Marsden 110-11). Heathcliff is a case in point. After his benefactor, the Old Earnshaw, passes away, Hindley bullies Heathcliff and insists on treating him like a servant. Unable to fight back, Heathcliff feels resentment against Hindley and plans to revenge. He tells Nelly about this plan: “‘I’m trying to settle how I shall pay Hindley back. I don’t care how long I wait, if I can only do it at last. I hope he will not die before I do!’” (Brontë 48). Upon hearing this, Nelly tries to change his mind by invoking the Christian message of forgiveness, one that Heathcliff supposedly knows very well from (his reluctant) reading with Joseph: “‘It is for God to punish wicked people; we should learn to forgive’” (Brontë 48). But Nelly fails spectacularly. Heathcliff declares that he has no intention to practice this Christian virtue: “‘No, God won’t have the satisfaction that I shall’” (Brontë 48). In addition, he carries out his vengeful plan ruthlessly. He never forgives Hindley throughout his life. Heathcliff’s lasting hatred once again testifies to how ineffective religious books can be in instilling the Christian message of forgiveness into the mind of their readers. If that is the case, does Brontё wish to show that books are irrelevant to the happy ending of Wuthering Heights, in which
forgiveness and reconciliation play a central part?
I would argue that the answer is no and that when a book ceases to be only an object of religious didacticism, its power of bridging the cultural gap between two individuals is unleashed. When Wuthering Heights draws to an end, Brontё engineers a complex scene of forgiveness and reconciliation. The two major players in this scene are Catherine II and Hareton Earnshaw. Earlier in the novel, Catherine II shows little sympathy and respect for Hareton’s attempt to learn to read. In a fit of anger, Hareton
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slaps Catherine II’s face. This incident apparently creates bad feelings in their hearts toward each other. But Catherine II, probably guilty of her unkind behavior, decides to make amends. Significantly, she decides to give a book to Hareton as a gift. What follows is a meaningful passage that I believe is worth being quoted in its entirety.
Catherine employed herself in wrapping a handsome book neatly in white paper;
and having tied it with a bit of riband, and addressed it to “Mr. Hareton
Earnshaw,” she desired me to be her ambassadress, and convey the present to its destined recipient.
“And tell him, if he’ll take it, I’ll come and teach him to read it right,” she said, “and, if he refuse [sic] it, I’ll go upstairs, and never tease him again.”
I carried it, and repeated the message, anxiously watched by my employer.
Hareton would not open his fingers, so I laid it on his knee. He did not strike it off either. I returned to my work. Catherine leaned her head and arms on the table, till she heard the slight rustle of the covering being removed; then she stole away, and quietly seated herself beside her cousin. He trembled, and his face glowed. All his rudeness and all his surly harshness had deserted him—he could not summon courage, at first, to utter a syllable, in reply to her
questioning look, and her murmured petition.
“Say you forgive me, Hareton, do. You can make me so happy by speaking that little word.”
He muttered something inaudible.
“And you’ll be my friend?” added Catherine, interrogatively.
“Nay, you’ll be ashamed of me every day of your life,” he answered; “and the more ashamed, the more you know me; and I cannot bide it.”
“So you won’t be my friend?” she said, smiling as sweet as honey, and creeping close up.
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I overheard no further distinguishable talk, but, on looking round again, I perceived two such radiant countenances bent over the page of the accepted book, that I did not doubt the treaty had been ratified on both sides; and the enemies were, thenceforth, sworn allies. (Brontë 240)
The book in this passage ceases to be a material object containing the Christian message of forgiveness. It is a useful medium through which such a message can get across. Hareton does not explicitly says that he forgives Catherine II. He only “mutter[s]
something inaudible.” However, the fact that he accepts the gift from Catherine II suggests that he is ready to bury the hatchet and befriend his enemy. The fact that he is willing to read a book with Catherine II further confirms that they have left their mutual hostility behind. As Nelly tells us: “the treaty had been ratified on both sides; and the enemies were, thenceforth, sworn allies.” A book used to be the source of Hareton’s humiliation. His inability fluently to pronounce the sentences in a book not only reminds him of his ignorance but also invites the mockery of Catherine II. But in this passage, a book has become the source of Hareton’s intense happiness. It reminds him that he is no longer alone in his pursuit for knowledge and that he need not feel ashamed of his cultural inferiority any more.
It is important to notice that Brontё does not tell readers about the title and the content of this gift book. We only know that a book has the power to bring about a happy reconciliation between Hareton and Catherine II. But we never know what exactly this book is about. This vagueness about books at the end of Wutheirng Heights is remarkable, because it contrasts sharply with Brontё’s decision, early in this novel, to underline the religious nature of books in Wuthering Heights. When those religious books and their specific titles appear in the novel, they are associated with
interpersonal conflicts. Lockwood’s first dream best exemplifies this point.
Interestingly, when books in Wuthering Heights shed their explicitly religious
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qualities, they are capable of eliminating interpersonal conflicts that have damaged so many relationships in this novel. I contend that this conspicuous contrast reveals Emily Brontё’s attitude toward those books about forgiveness in Victorian Britain.
She believes that those books, though kindly-meant, risk confining the Christian virtue to a strict doctrine and limiting the function of books to gaining a lesson. She envisions a happier scenario in which a book is not used only for learning a lesson and in which forgiveness is not only a matter of religious doctrine.
This vision manifests itself in a scene where Catherine II teaches Hareton how to pronounce a word correctly through a book.
Cathy and Hareton’s reading together depicts the intimacy growing between them after the reconciliation. Lockwood passes by them and happens to witness their close interaction when they read together.
“Con-trary!” said a voice [of Catherine II], as sweet as a silver bell—“That for the third time, you dunce! I’m not going to tell you, again—Recollect, or I pull your hair!”
“Contrary, then,” answered another [voice of Hareton], in deep, but softened tones. “And now, kiss me, for minding so well.”
“No, read it over first correctly, without a single mistake.” (Brontë 234) This passage once again demonstrates that Hareton has already forgiven Catherine II for her cruel insult. But there is no sign suggesting that Hareton does so by
remembering any of the religious books or tracts about forgiveness. Gibson has rightly pointed out that forgiveness is not only a matter of words but also a matter of action. To forgive is to “embrace” the other party, either the offender or offended, creating a sympathetic bond between people and “the possibility of an enlarged community” (Volf qtd. in Gibson 31). While Hareton was raised in Wuthering Heights, which represents nature, Catherine II grew up in Thrushcross Grange, which stands for culture. When
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they first met, the illiterate Hareton contrasts sharply with the well-learned Catherine II. But when Hareton repeats the word “contrary” after Catherine II, they are no longer enemies. Hareton practices the Christian virtue of forgiveness without tying himself up to a religious book. In so doing, he releases this virtue from the confines of religious books and suggests that it is more important to live up to this ideal with actions than to talk about it.
In addition, in the passage above, freeing the Christian message of forgiveness from religious texts parallels broadening the functions of a book. Gaining knowledge is one of the most important reasons why people take up a book. And indeed Hareton here is learning how to read the word “contrary.” But the book in front of Hareton and Catherine II is more than an educational tool benefiting one individual. Helping to bring Hareton and Catherine II closer both physically and emotionally, the book is a social tool, one that has the power to bring about interpersonal harmony.
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Books have traditionally been understood as a material object whose primary purpose is to enlighten their readers. Because people open a book usually for the sake of gaining knowledge and broadening his/her horizons, few people would deny that books stand for intellectual and cultural authority. This dissertation has argued that Emily Brontё’s novel Wuthering Heights throws these conventional assumptions into disarray. In this novel, characters use books for a variety of purposes other than improving their existing knowledge. Catherine I scribbles on her book. Lockwood focuses more on the scribbles on the book margins than on the content of a book.
Isabella and Edgar go to a book in order to shun interpersonal communications.
Catherine II uses a book as a gift, before reading it with Hareton.
By disassociating the presence of a book from the purpose of gaining
knowledge, Emily Brontё shows that, in her fictional world, books play a significant role in dealing with interpersonal conflicts. Emily Brontё’s novel moves from
knowledge, Emily Brontё shows that, in her fictional world, books play a significant role in dealing with interpersonal conflicts. Emily Brontё’s novel moves from