Several suggestions for further research are proposed here to overcome the limitations of the current research. First, future studies are suggested to compile an additional corpus of masters’ theses produced by native English students. Inclusion of native students’ writings can help future researchers to examine whether native EAP students exhibit a similar usage pattern of collocations as the Taiwanese EFL learners did in this study. Cross-comparison between published authors’, native EAP students’, and Taiwanese EFL learners’ academic collocation uses can better reveal that the mismatch between published authors’ and the Taiwanese EFL learners’ usage pattern of collocations are due to the causes of genre difference (i.e. researcher articles and masters’ theses) or years’ of academic writing experience (i.e. more experienced published authors and more novice student writers).
Another suggestion is to include more core nouns in further research. A preliminary exploration on nouns occurring more than 40 times PWMs in the two corpora yields additional 111 core nouns (see Appendix F for the complete listing of these nouns). Quick examination on these nouns reveals that these nouns are indeed commonly seen in the field of applied linguistics. However, investigating the verb/adjective collocates of these core nouns will be too overwhelming for one researcher to undertake. It is thus suggested that interested researchers can identify the common verb/adjective collocations of the additional core nouns, which can not only provide more comprehensive lists of common V-N and A-N collocations in the field of applied linguistics but also facilitate our understanding of Taiwanese EFL learners’
usage pattern of these additional combinations.
In addition, further studies are also encouraged to extend their research scope on other types of lexical collocation, such as adverb-verb (Adv-V) and adverb-adjective
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(Adv-A) collocations. Compilation of frequent Adv-V/Adv-A collocation lists can provide more useful references for student writers in the field of applied linguistics.
Future studies can also investigate common lexical collocations in other academic fields.
Previous research has proved that the use of collocations is discipline-specific in academic writing. More studies on different academic disciplines are thus necessary to match the needs of different EAP students.
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APPENDICES
Appendix A. Listing of Meaning-Clustered V-N Collocations in RAC.
Core Noun Meaning of Collocation V-N Collocation
conclusion reach a conclusion draw conclusion, reach conclusion context create/explain a context provide context
difference discuss a difference examine difference explain a difference explain difference
make a big effect make difference
recognize a difference find difference, identify difference, indicate difference, observe difference, reflect difference, reveal difference, show difference discussion present a discussion present discussion
example give an example present example, provide example
finding confirm/repeat someone else’s
findings confirm finding, corroborate finding, support finding make findings public present finding
information collect information collect information, gather information contain information contain information
deal with information process information exchange/share information exchange information
get information elicit information, obtain information, receive information give information give information, provide information
present information present information
use information use information
issue deal with an issue address issue
discuss/investigate an issue discuss issue, examine issue, explore issue, investigate issue mention/point out an issue raise issue
relate issue relate issue
knowledge get knowledge acquire knowledge, gain knowledge
improve knowledge construct knowledge, develop knowledge measure knowledge measure knowledge
require knowledge require knowledge
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show knowledge demonstrate knowledge
use knowledge apply knowledge, use knowledge
language get language acquire language
learn/teach a language learn language, teach language
study a language study language
use/speak a language produce language, speak language, use language learner allow learners to do sth. allow learner, enable learner
ask learners to do sth. ask learner, push learner, require learner
expect learners expect learner
give learners sth. expose learner, provide learner motivate learners encourage learner, engage learner
teach learners lead learner
level reach a level achieve level, reach level
show a level show level
number
increase/reduce the number of sth. increase number reduce number participant allow participants to do sth. allow participant
ask participants to do sth. ask participant, require participant, tell participant divide participants divide participant
give participants sth. assign participant, give participant, provide participant get participants recruit participant, select participant
motivate participants encourage participant teach participants instruct participant test participants test participant
point receive a point award point, receive point
make a point make point
question
answer/ask a question
answer question ask question deal with a question address question make people start to think about a
question pose question, raise question
think about/discuss a question investigate question
use a question use question
research do research conduct research
need research need research, require research
result consider/ analyze results compare result, discuss result, interpret result, summarize result obtain results find result, obtain result
produce results produce result, yield result
publish results present result, report result, show result
role accept a role assume role
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examine the role of sb./sth. examine role, investigate role
have a role play role, take role
student allow students to do sth. allow student, enable student, prepare student,
ask students to do sth. ask student, inform student, invite student, require student
divide students divide student
expect students expect student
give/show students sth. assign student, expose student, introduce student, provide student
interview student interview student
motivate students encourage student, engage student place students into certain
group/place enroll student, place student
teach students guide student, instruct student, lead student, teach student study carry out a study carry out study, conduct study, undertake study
design a study design study
guide study guide study
publish/review a study describe study, report study, review study
task design a task design task
do a task administer task, perform task
finish a task accomplish task, complete task
use a task use task
term use a term use term
use consider/analyze the use compare use, examine use, investigate use
need the use require use
report the use report use
word choose a word choose word, select word
encounter a word encounter word
guess a word guess word
know a word identify word, know word, learn word, recognize word
process a word process word, read word
remember a word remember word
repeat a word repeat word
show a word contain word, present word
use a word produce word, pronounce word, use word, write word
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Appendix B. Listing of Meaning-Clustered A-N Collocations in RAC.
Core Noun Meaning of Collocation A-N Collocation
context different context different context, various context
general context broad context
particular context certain context, particular context, specific context
types of context
academic context, communicative context, cultural context, educational context, institutional context, instructional context, interactional context, local context, meaningful context, new context, obligatory context, social context, sociocultural context
difference big difference great difference
clear difference clear difference, large difference, major difference important difference important difference, significant difference
main difference main difference
small difference small difference
types of difference cultural difference, individual difference, qualitative difference, statistical difference
discussion discussion that taking place on the
Internet online discussion
long or detailed discussion detailed discussion, further discussion
example above example above example
very good or clear discussion good example
finding important findings important finding
interesting/surprising findings interesting finding
main findings main finding
similar findings similar finding
present finding, previous finding
form correct form correct form
different form different form, various form
new form new form
particular form particular form, specific form
types of form grammatical form, inflected form, lexical form, linguistic form, plural form
group different group different group
groups of a particular size large group, small group particular group particular group
types of group advanced group, experimental group, social group information detailed information detailed information
important information important information information that is clear & easy to
see explicit information
more information additional information, new information particular information specific information
110 types of information
contextual information, demographic information, grammatical information, lexical information, linguistic information, phonological information, semantic information, syntactic information, visual information
useful information relevant information
issue important issue important issue, key issue
knowledge general knowledge general knowledge
knowing the most recent facts new knowledge partial knowledge partial knowledge
previous knowledge existing knowledge, previous knowledge, prior knowledge
shared knowledge shared knowledge
types of knowledge
cultural knowledge, declarative knowledge, grammatical knowledge, lexical knowledge, linguistic knowledge, metacognitive knowledge, metalinguistic knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, personal knowledge, practical knowledge, procedural knowledge, productive knowledge, receptive knowledge, strategic knowledge, syntactic knowledge explicit knowledge, implicit knowledge
language different language different language
new language new language
types of language
academic language, dominant language, formulaic language, oral language
additional language, foreign language, international language heritage language, home language, natural language
native language, nonnative language used in official contexts official language
learner
at different learning point early learner late learner
degrees of proficiency
advanced learner, proficient learner intermediate learner
novice learner
types of learner individual learner, old learner, successful learner level
degrees of proficiency
advanced level, high level
intermediate level, secondary level low level
different/similar level different level, various level similar level
particular level certain level
suitable or acceptable level appropriate level
types of level conceptual level, lexical level, linguistic level, tertiary level
number average number average number, mean number
same or similar equal number
large number great number, high number, large number small number limited number, low number, small number
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increasing number growing number, increasing number
total number total number
order not in order random order
participant type of participant individual participant
point different point different point
main points important point, key point, main point process difficult/complicated process complex process
types of process cognitive process, mental process social process
question asking for an opinion and not an
answer of ‘yes’ or ‘no’ open question
key question important question, main question particular question specific question
types of question direct question
research done for a long time early research, previous research, prior research done recently or being done now current research, present research, recent research being done in the future further research, future research
using particular methods empirical research, qualitative research result after considering everything overall result
different/similar results different result, mixed result similar result
good results good result, positive result, significant result types of results quantitative result
role active role active role
different role different role
important role central role, crucial role, important role, significant role
types of role thematic role
student
degrees of proficiency advanced student, proficient student intermediate student
types of student focal student, individual student, international student, young student
study
a great/small number of studies numerous study several study
done for a long time/recently current study, present study, recent study done recently or being done now early study, previous study
being done in the future further study, future study
main study main study
of a particular scale large study
similar study similar study
types of study academic study, exploratory study
using a particular method comparative study, empirical study, experimental study,
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longitudinal study, qualitative study
task different task different task
difficult/unpleasant task complex task, difficult task particular task particular task, specific task
types of task communicative task, experimental task
use common use extensive use, frequent use, great use, high use
general use overall use
good use effective use
real or correct use actual use, appropriate use, correct use word common/important words frequent word, key word
different word different word
knowing/not knowing a word familiar word
unfamiliar word, unknown word
particular words particular word
types of words
abstract word, academic word, difficult word, new word, real word,
individual word, single word
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Appendix C. V-N and A-N Collocations in RAC and MTC.
Core Noun V-N
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social context 272 22.9 147 9.8% 192 16.4 101 20.4%
sociocultural context 70 5.9 42 2.8% 24 2 16 3.2%
specific context 233 19.6 155 10.3% 109 9.3 62 12.6%
various context 78 6.6 66 4.4% 90 7.7 49 9.9%
difference compare difference 34 2.9 27 1.8% 150 12.8 99 20.0% clear difference 73 6.2 62 4.1% 15 1.3 11 2.2%
examine difference 67 5.7 60 4.0% 134 11.4 91 18.4% cultural difference 160 13.5 91 6.1% 133 11.3 64 13.0%
exist difference 4 0.3 4 0.3% 105 9 38 7.7% great difference 66 5.6 56 3.7% 74 6.3 51 10.3%
explain difference 98 8.3 83 5.5% 36 3.1 32 6.5% important difference 103 8.7 86 5.7% 17 1.5 11 2.2%
explore difference 29 2.4 25 1.7% 78 6.7 48 9.7% individual difference 385 32.5 182 12.1% 326 27.8 143 28.9%
find difference 599 50.5 321 21.4% 611 52.1 206 41.7% large difference 88 7.4 67 4.5% 19 1.6 15 3.0%
identify difference 75 6.3 62 4.1% 51 4.4 37 7.5% main difference 60 5.1 51 3.4% 23 2 22 4.5%
indicate difference 119 10 93 6.2% 87 7.4 56 11.3% major difference 80 6.7 68 4.5% 85 7.3 57 11.5%
investigate difference 49 4.1 44 2.9% 90 7.7 68 13.8% qualitative difference 68 5.7 51 3.4% 18 1.5 12 2.4%
make difference 105 8.9 85 5.7% 194 16.5 101 20.4% significant difference 2421 204.2 638 42.5% 4952 422.4 376 76.1%
observe difference 104 8.8 82 5.5% 34 2.9 24 4.9% small difference 75 6.3 46 3.1% 15 1.3 12 2.4%
reach difference 0 0 0 0.0% 89 7.6 40 8.1% statistical difference 60 5.1 43 2.9% 43 3.7 34 6.9%
reflect difference 64 5.4 61 4.1% 17 1.5 16 3.2%
reveal difference 350 29.5 211 14.1% 166 14.2 101 20.4%
show difference 528 44.5 302 20.1% 555 47.3 214 43.3%
discussion present discussion 70 5.9 62 4.1% 0 0 0 0.0% detailed discussion 61 5.1 54 3.6% 37 3.2 30 6.1%
electronic discussion 24 2 10 0.7% 79 6.7 12 2.4%
further discussion 84 7.1 73 4.9% 121 10.3 85 17.2%
online discussion 142 12 33 2.2% 227 19.4 15 3.0%
example present example 63 5.3 48 3.2% 46 3.9 35 7.1% above example 70 5.9 49 3.3% 197 16.8 52 10.5%
provide example 219 18.5 167 11.1% 162 13.8 100 20.2% good example 59 5 54 3.6% 65 5.5 50 10.1%
typical example 36 3 34 2.3% 61 5.2 38 7.7%
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finding confirm finding 86 7.3 70 4.7% 33 2.8 26 5.3% above finding 25 2.1 22 1.5% 77 6.6 43 8.7%
corroborate finding 59 5 51 3.4% 28 2.4 25 5.1% important finding 78 6.6 66 4.4% 42 3.6 34 6.9%
discuss finding 55 4.6 53 3.5% 127 10.8 98 19.8% interesting finding 77 6.5 68 4.5% 57 4.9 38 7.7%
present finding 87 7.3 74 4.9% 142 12.1 94 19.0% main finding 77 6.5 64 4.3% 88 7.5 49 9.9%
report finding 141 11.9 124 8.3% 136 11.6 61 12.3% major finding 42 3.5 37 2.5% 497 42.4 275 55.7%
summarize finding 47 4 44 2.9% 173 14.8 138 27.9% present finding 74 6.2 58 3.9% 39 3.3 22 4.5%
support finding 110 9.3 96 6.4% 143 12.2 81 16.4% previous finding 155 13.1 116 7.7% 97 8.3 61 12.3%
similar finding 95 8 81 5.4% 94 8 72 14.6%
form notice form 85 7.2 45 3.0% 54 4.6 21 4.3% correct form 239 20.2 108 7.2% 212 18.1 68 13.8%
produce form 159 13.4 78 5.2% 68 5.8 32 6.5% derived form 16 1.3 12 0.8% 69 5.9 13 2.6%
provide form 79 6.7 42 2.8% 50 4.3 26 5.3% different form 167 14.1 125 8.3% 132 11.3 84 17.0%
take form 178 15 144 9.6% 69 5.9 51 10.3% grammatical form 167 14.1 100 6.7% 349 29.8 45 9.1%
use form 383 32.3 192 12.8% 219 18.7 86 17.4% inflected form 99 8.3 33 2.2% 15 1.3 9 1.8%
lexical form 64 5.4 33 2.2% 18 1.5 11 2.2%
linguistic form 419 35.3 182 12.1% 345 29.4 91 18.4%
new form 151 12.7 88 5.9% 40 3.4 32 6.5%
particular form 97 8.2 69 4.6% 40 3.4 26 5.3%
plural form 112 9.4 42 2.8% 47 4 27 5.5%
reduced form 12 1 10 0.7% 216 18.4 13 2.6%
specific form 65 5.5 43 2.9% 61 5.2 17 3.4%
spoken form 45 3.8 23 1.5% 70 6 46 9.3%
various form 92 7.8 75 5.0% 69 5.9 50 10.1%
group form group 70 5.9 54 3.6% 90 7.7 50 10.1% advanced group 142 12 45 3.0% 26 2.2 7 1.4%
outperform group 162 13.7 77 5.1% 307 26.2 98 19.8% different group 301 25.4 201 13.4% 338 28.8 158 32.0%
experimental group 956 80.6 158 10.5% 4085 348.5 184 37.2%
heterogeneous group 31 2.6 22 1.5% 79 6.7 31 6.3%
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large group 123 10.4 91 6.1% 60 5.1 43 8.7%
particular group 100 8.4 80 5.3% 35 3 30 6.1%
small group 283 23.9 171 11.4% 314 26.8 122 24.7%
social group 60 5.1 40 2.7% 16 1.4 13 2.6%
information collect information 65 5.5 54 3.6% 100 8.5 79 16.0% additional information 123 10.4 93 6.2% 84 7.2 52 10.5%
contain information 115 9.7 89 5.9% 70 6 53 10.7% contextual information 81 6.8 59 3.9% 111 9.5 60 12.1%
elicit information 81 6.8 64 4.3% 97 8.3 66 13.4% cultural information 40 3.4 30 2.0% 67 5.7 24 4.9%
exchange information 65 5.5 48 3.2% 51 4.4 36 7.3% demographic information 64 5.4 56 3.7% 80 6.8 48 9.7%
gather information 105 8.9 85 5.7% 111 9.5 68 13.8% detailed information 108 9.1 93 6.2% 212 18.1 109 22.1%
get information 44 3.7 36 2.4% 116 9.9 73 14.8% explicit information 94 7.9 38 2.5% 30 2.6 12 2.4%
give information 213 18 125 8.3% 128 10.9 87 17.6% grammatical information 80 6.7 35 2.3% 10 0.9 7 1.4%
integrate information 51 4.3 39 2.6% 186 15.9 42 8.5% important information 67 5.7 55 3.7% 130 11.1 74 15.0%
obtain information 114 9.6 88 5.9% 161 13.7 116 23.5% lexical information 74 6.2 37 2.5% 33 2.8 16 3.2%
offer information 32 2.7 29 1.9% 95 8.1 67 13.6% linguistic information 80 6.7 50 3.3% 59 5 43 8.7%
organize information 35 3 25 1.7% 100 8.5 47 9.5% new information 255 21.5 146 9.7% 456 38.9 190 38.5%
present information 137 11.6 100 6.7% 121 10.3 81 16.4% personal information 46 3.9 43 2.9% 86 7.3 58 11.7%
process information 87 7.3 67 4.5% 149 12.7 93 18.8% phonological information 72 6.1 23 1.5% 30 2.6 10 2.0%
provide information 735 62 459 30.6% 560 47.8 260 52.6% relevant information 131 11 101 6.7% 134 11.4 72 14.6%
provide information 735 62 459 30.6% 560 47.8 260 52.6% relevant information 131 11 101 6.7% 134 11.4 72 14.6%