In light of the research into the effects of the keyword method as a mnemonic device in vocabulary teaching and learning, the present study explored the effects on
- 91 -
delayed recall of changing the teaching sequence with different encoding cues.
Despite the inspiring results revealed in this study as to the positive effect of implementing the keyword method on EFL junior high school students’ vocabulary
acquisition, some suggestions are provided below for future research.
First, junior high school students in different cities should be included. Based on the researcher’s observation, students in the countryside performed differently
from those in Taipei City. In Taiwan, the students in Taipei City started to learn English earlier than in the other cities. Moreover, the students who participated in the current study had plenty of resources to learn English (e.g., cram schools). Whether the effect would be different for participants from different areas might be an issue worthy of explanation.
Second, due to the tight class schedule, the keywords in the present study were presented by the researcher. Some of the keywords may not be suitable for students. If the students were allowed to generate their own keywords, their performance might be different. To allow the students to generate their own keywords, sufficient time in class is needed. Moreover, students need to be supervised if they actually dedicate their time to generating keywords to prevent them from chatting with each other. In addition, students’ ability to come up with keywords should also be taken into
- 92 -
consideration. Further investigation could focus on the difference between the provided keywords and the generated keywords.
Finally, the keyword mnemonic method can be used to explore how it can facilitate the acquisition of English vocabulary. With the help of dual memory traces, the information could be stored both verbally and nonverbally. When the participants are taught in the adjusted sequence, the hindrance caused by the phonological
similarity effect could be diminished. Moreover, by presenting word encoding cue to the students when implementing the method, the information could be effectively retained over time. Hence, the keyword method with word encoding cues and the adjusted teaching sequence is highly recommended for future research.
- 93 -
REFERENCES
Ashouri, P., & Moghadam, M. (2015). The effect of instructing mnemonic devices on
immediate versus delayed vocabulary retention. International Journal of
Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World, 8(1), 87-102.
Atkinson, R. C. (1975). Mnemotechnics in second-language learning. American Psychologist, 30(8), 821.
Baddeley, A. (2012). Working memory: Theories, models, and controversies. Annual
Review of Psychology, 63, 1-29.
Baleghizadeh, S., & Ashoori, A. (2010). The effect of keyword and word-list methods
on immediate vocabulary retention of EFL learners. Pakistan Journal of Social
Sciences (PJSS), 30(2), 251-261.
Campos, A., González, M. A., & Amor, A. (2003). Limitations of the
mnemonic-keyword method. The Journal of General Psychology, 130(4), 399-413.
Campoy, G., & Baddeley, A. (2008). Phonological and semantic strategies in
immediate serial recall. Memory, 16(4), 329-340.
- 94 -
Campoy, G., Castellà, J., Provencio, V., Hitch, G. J., & Baddeley, A. D. (2015).
Automatic semantic encoding in verbal short-term memory: Evidence from the concreteness effect. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68(4), 759-778.
Carney, R. N., & Levin, J. R. (1998). Do mnemonic memories fade as time goes by?
Here's looking anew! Contemporary Educational Psychology, 23(3), 276-297.
Clark, J. M., & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review, 3(3), 149-210.
Conrad, R., & Hull, A. J. (1964). Information, acoustic confusion and memory span. British Journal of Psychology, 55(4), 429-432.
Davoudi, M., & Yousefi, D. (2016). The Effect of Keyword Method on Vocabulary Retention of Senior High School EFL Learners in Iran. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(11), 106-113.
De Groot, A. M., & Van Hell, J. G. (2009). The learning of foreign language vocabulary. Handbook of Bilingualism, 9.
Dolean, D. D. (2014). Using the keyword method in the classroom: Is the interacting
imagery necessary? System, 45, 17-26.
- 95 -
Dufour, R., & Kroll, J. F. (1995). Matching words to concepts in two languages: A test
of the concept mediation model of bilingual representation. Memory &
Cognition, 23(2), 166-180.
Farley, A., Pahom, O., & Ramonda, K. (2014). Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Words?
Using Images to Create a Concreteness Effect for Abstract Words: Evidence from Beginning L2 Learners of Spanish. Hispania, 97(4), 634-650.
Farley, A. P., Ramonda, K., & Liu, X. (2012). The concreteness effect and the
bilingual lexicon: The impact of visual stimuli attachment on meaning recall
of abstract L2 words. Language Teaching Research, 16(4), 449-466.
Jarrold, C., & Citroën, R. (2013). Reevaluating key evidence for the development of rehearsal: phonological similarity effects in children are subject to
proportional scaling artifacts. Developmental Psychology, 49(5), 837.
Johnson, C. T. (2015). Priming Effects on Word Recognition in Students with Dyslexia. University of Northern Colorado.
Karpicke, J. D., & Smith, M. A. (2012). Separate mnemonic effects of retrieval practice and elaborative encoding. Journal of Memory and Language, 67(1), 17-29.
- 96 -
Lawson, M. J., & Hogben, D. (1998). Learning and recall of foreign-language
vocabulary: Effects of a keyword strategy for immediate and delayed
recall.Learning and Instruction, 8(2), 179-194.
Levin, J. R., Johnson, D. D., Pittelman, S. D., Levin, K. M., Shriberg, L. K., Toms‐
Bronowski, S., & Hayes, B. L. (1984). A comparison of semantic- and mnemonic-based vocabulary‐learning strategies.
Reading Psychology: An International Quarterly, 5(1-2), 1-15.
Levin, J. R., Levin, M. E., Glasman, L. D., & Nordwall, M. B. (1992). Mnemonic vocabulary instruction: Additional effectiveness evidence. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 17(2), 156-174.
Lian, A., Karlsen, P. J., & Winsvold, B. (2001). A re-evaluation of the phonological
similarity effect in adults' short-term memory of words and
nonwords. Memory, 9(4-6), 281-299.
Little, A., & Kobayashi, K. (2015). Vocabulary Learning Strategies of Japanese Life
Science Students. TESOL Journal, 6(1), 81-111.
Luna, D., & Peracchio, L. A. (1999). What’s in a bilingual’s mind?: How bilingual consumers process information. NA-Advances in Consumer Research Volume
26.
- 97 -
McGivern, J. E., & Levin, J. R. (1982). The keyword method and children's
vocabulary learning: An interaction with vocabulary
knowledge. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 8(1), 46-54.
Nation, I. S. (2008). Teaching Vocabulary: The Big Picture 2. Vocabulary and Listening 3. Vocabulary and Speaking 4. Vocabulary Learning and Intensive
Reading 5. Vocabulary Learning Through Extensive Reading 6. Vocabulary
and Writing 7. The Deliberate Teaching and Learning of Vocabulary 8.
Specialized Vocabulary 9. Testing Vocabulary Knowledge 10. Planning the
Vocabulary of a Language Course. Heinle.
Nation, I. S., & Webb, S. A. (2011). Researching and analyzing vocabulary. Heinle,
Cengage Learning.
Nation, P., & Newton, J. (1997). Teaching vocabulary. Second language vocabulary
acquisition, 238-254.
Nimmo, Lisa M., & Roodenrys Steven (2005). The phonological similarity effect in serial recognition. Memory, 13(7), 773-784
Paivio, A. (2013). Dual coding theory, word abstractness, and emotion: a critical review of Kousta et al.(2011).
Peters, E. E., & Levin, J. R. (1986). Effects of a mnemonic imagery strategy on good
and poor readers' prose recall. Reading Research Quarterly, 179-192.
- 98 -
Rummel, N., Levin, J. R., & Woodward, M. M. (2003). Do pictorial mnemonic
text-learning aids give students something worth writing about? Journal of
Educational Psychology, 95(2), 327.
Savill, N., Ellis, A. W., & Jefferies, E. (2017). Newly-acquired words are more
phonologically robust in verbal short-term memory when they have associated
semantic representations. Neuropsychologia, 98, 85-97.
Shapiro, A. M., & Waters, D. L. (2005). An investigation of the cognitive processes
underlying the keyword method of foreign vocabulary learning. Language
Teaching Research, 9(2), 129-146.
Siriganjanavong, V. (2013). The mnemonic keyword method: Effects on the
vocabulary acquisition and retention. English Language Teaching, 6(10), 1.
Wang, A. Y., & Thomas, M. H. (1992). The effect of imagery‐based mnemonics on the long‐term retention of Chinese characters. Language Learning, 42(3),
359-376.
Wang, A. Y., & Thomas, M. H. (1995). Effects of keyword on long-term retention:
Help or hindrance? Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(3), 468.
Wang, A. Y., Thomas, M. H., & Ouellette, J. A. (1992). Keyword mnemonic and retention of second-language vocabulary words. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(4), 520.
- 99 -
Wyra, M., Lawson, M. J., & Hungi, N. (2007). The mnemonic keyword method: The effects of bidirectional retrieval training and of ability to image on foreign language vocabulary recall. Learning and Instruction, 17(3), 360-371.
Yao, H. (1992). Image System for Memorizing English Words. Shanghai, PRC:
Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences Press.
- 100 -