Future work may clarify the results of the most popular topics according to different time periods. Since the period from 1980 to 2010 is a long span of 30 years, it is expected to be found that the topics of most interest to researchers will have changed with the passage of time. In addition, to get a clearer picture of phraseology in academic writing, more studies can be done by exploring an extension of the clusters, such as 6-word clusters. More work is also needed to more thoroughly manually investigate the structure sentence by sentence. Furthermore, it is suggested that future research include research articles from other areas to create a more diverse corpus.
58
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62
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
Genre A: Top 100 most frequent content words in research articles from Applied Linguistics (1980-2010)
29 speech 5984 0.11 79 found 3542 0.06
30 studies 5830 0.10 80 given 3525 0.06
31 different 5762 0.10 81 forms 3496 0.06
32 native 5666 0.10 82 speaker 3490 0.06
33 see 5649 0.10 83 process 3483 0.06
34 each 5648 0.10 84 strategies 3483 0.06
35 social 5613 0.10 85 results 3479 0.06
36 time 5596 0.10 86 writing 3472 0.06
37 test 5309 0.09 87 role 3461 0.06
38 form 5210 0.09 88 competence 3421 0.06
39 group 5156 0.09 89 Cambridge 3407 0.06
40 teaching 5153 0.09 90 evidence 3393 0.06
41 linguistics 5136 0.09 91 point 3385 0.06
42 task 5099 0.09 92 children 3383 0.06
43 speakers 5073 0.09 93 grammar 3383 0.06
44 first 5068 0.09 94 communicative 3380 0.06
45 three 4903 0.09 95 important 3372 0.06
46 same 4879 0.09 96 performance 3306 0.06
47 text 4820 0.09 97 input 3297 0.06
48 information 4729 0.08 98 model 3294 0.06
49 meaning 4701 0.08 99 fact 3267 0.06
50 applied 4683 0.08 100 questions 3261 0.06
64
APPENDIX B
Genre B: Top 100 most frequent content words in introductions from research articles from Applied Linguistics (1980-2010)
31 only 392 0.12 81 ways 228 0.07
32 teaching 385 0.12 82 text 227 0.07
33 speech 378 0.12 83 children 226 0.07
34 word 363 0.11 84 group 223 0.07
35 social 361 0.11 85 test 221 0.07
36 based 358 0.11 86 features 217 0.07
37 see 356 0.11 87 general 216 0.07
38 particular 342 0.11 88 various 216 0.07
39 context 337 0.11 89 given 214 0.07
40 interaction 336 0.10 90 questions 214 0.07
41 languages 331 0.10 91 target 214 0.07
42 first 327 0.10 92 make 212 0.07
43 development 322 0.10 93 question 211 0.07
44 learner 314 0.10 94 grammar 210 0.07
45 communicative 311 0.10 95 instruction 210 0.07
46 form 311 0.10 96 case 209 0.07
47 well 309 0.10 97 linguistics 209 0.07
48 task 303 0.09 98 view 209 0.07
49 meaning 299 0.09 99 competence 204 0.07
50 classroom 290 0.09 100 part 204 0.07
66
APPENDIX C
Genre C: Top 100 most frequent content words in abstracts from research articles from Applied Linguistics (1980-2010)
31 speech 116 0.14 81 instruction 72 0.08 32 classroom 115 0.14 82 context 71 0.08 33 first 115 0.14 83 information 71 0.08 34 vocabulary 115 0.14 84 target 71 0.08 35 theory 110 0.13 85 implications 70 0.08 36 development 109 0.13 86 questions 70 0.08
37 words 109 0.13 87 children 69 0.08
38 proficiency 106 0.12 88 only 69 0.08
39 task 106 0.12 89 order 69 0.08
40 test 104 0.12 90 terms 69 0.08
41 applied 104 0.12 91 process 68 0.08
42 form 104 0.12 92 understanding 68 0.08
43 social 104 0.12 93 each 67 0.08
44 meaning 103 0.12 94 aspects 66 0.08
45 differences 101 0.12 95 practice 66 0.08
46 word 98 0.12 96 processing 66 0.08
47 interaction 97 0.11 97 focus 65 0.08 48 particular 93 0.11 98 foreign 65 0.08
49 all 92 0.11 99 found 65 0.08
50 role 91 0.11 100 types 65 0.08
68
APPENDIX D
Genre D: Top 100 most frequent content words from the first paragraph of the introduction of research articles from Applied Linguistics (1980-2010)
Rank Word Freq. % Rank Word Freq. %
31 languages 75 0.12 81 competence 46 0.07
32 speakers 74 0.12 82 present 45 0.07
33 new 72 0.12 83 processes 45 0.07
34 both 71 0.12 84 article 44 0.07
35 learner 69 0.11 85 aspects 44 0.07
36 development 68 0.11 86 lexical 44 0.07
37 years 68 0.11 87 spoken 44 0.07
38 interaction 67 0.11 88 field 43 0.07
39 theory 67 0.11 89 focus 43 0.07
40 classroom 66 0.11 90 forms 43 0.07
41 foreign 66 0.11 91 interest 43 0.07
42 vocabulary 66 0.11 92 skills 43 0.07
43 communicative 65 0.11 93 Features 42 0.07
44 researchers 65 0.11 94 literature 41 0.07
45 all 63 0.10 95 corpus 40 0.07
46 first 62 0.10 96 evidence 40 0.07
47 only 62 0.10 97 given 40 0.07
48 long 61 0.10 98 Issues 40 0.07
49 number 61 0.10 99 science 40 0.07
50 academic 60 0.10 100 task 40 0.07
70
APPENDIX E
Genre E: Top 100 most frequent content words from the first sentence of the first paragraph of the introduction of research articles from Applied Linguistics
(1980-2010)
30 some 20 0.15 80 role 11 0.08
31 speakers 19 0.14 81 target 11 0.08
32 students 19 0.14 82 vocabulary 11 0.08
33 analysis 18 0.13 83 world 11 0.08
34 article 18 0.13 84 all 10 0.07
35 based 18 0.13 85 approaches 10 0.07
36 both 18 0.13 86 body 10 0.07
37 social 18 0.13 87 comprehension 10 0.07
38 theory 18 0.13 88 cultural 10 0.07
39 instruction 17 0.12 89 first 10 0.07
40 knowledge 17 0.12 90 human 10 0.07
41 new 17 0.12 91 issues 10 0.07
42 education 16 0.12 92 large 10 0.07
43 field 16 0.12 93 linguists 10 0.07
44 important 16 0.12 94 meaning 10 0.07
45 reading 16 0.12 95 part 10 0.07
46 researchers 16 0.12 96 past 10 0.07
47 strategies 16 0.12 97 specific 10 0.07
48 teachers 16 0.12 98 time 10 0.07
49 theoretical 16 0.12 99 view 10 0.07
50 work 16 0.12 100 analyses 9 0.07
72
APPENDIX F
Genre F: Top 100 most frequent content words from the first sentence of the second paragraph of the introduction of research articles from Applied Linguistics
(1980-2010)
30 applied 16 0.14 80 specific 9 0.08
31 classroom 16 0.14 81 task 9 0.08
32 communicative 16 0.14 82 written 9 0.08
33 made 16 0.14 83 all 8 0.07
34 students 16 0.14 84 approach 8 0.07
35 long 15 0.13 85 area 8 0.07
36 children 14 0.12 86 assessment 8 0.07
37 communication 14 0.12 87 case 8 0.07
38 development 14 0.12 88 cognitive 8 0.07
39 focus 14 0.12 89 conversation 8 0.07
40 languages 14 0.12 90 current 8 0.07
41 researchers 14 0.12 91 discussion 8 0.07
42 teachers 14 0.12 92 each 8 0.07
43 see 13 0.11 93 general 8 0.07
44 theoretical 13 0.11 94 input 8 0.07
45 academic 12 0.10 95 instruction 8 0.07
46 analysis 12 0.10 96 little 8 0.07
47 based 12 0.10 97 oral 8 0.07
48 interaction 12 0.10 98 reading 8 0.07
49 performance 12 0.10 99 related 8 0.07
50 present 12 0.10 100 simply 8 0.07
74
APPENDIX G
List of the 404 first sentences in the research articles selected from Applied Linguistics (1980-2010)
1.
A great deal of attention is currently being devoted to the notion that in language teaching and language learning what one is striving to achieve or impart is after all language as an instrument of communication and not just language as the embodiment of a formal system.
2.
The present position paper represents an initial stage in our broader research effort to determine the feasibility and practicality of measuring what we will call the 'communicative competence' of students enrolled in 'core' (similar to general) French as a second language programmes in elementary and secondary schools in Ontario.
3.
Social science survey methods, as old as the social sciences themselves, have been continuously developed and refined.
4.
Several new paradigms have emerged within applied linguistics in recent years.
5.
At a time when there is a recognised need in language teaching to give adequate attention to language use as well as language form, various 'notional-functional' or so-called 'communicative approaches' to language teaching are being advocated.
6.
There are two sources for the present paper: one rather theoretical, and one very practical.
7.
I wish to discuss in this paper some aspects of communicative foreign language teaching which imply or require an evaluation of different types of discourse activity.
8. discussions to which it has given rise include ambiguities, inconsistencies and even contradictions, which are due partly to a lack of precision in the definition of some of the basic concepts and partly to the inadequacy of the analytical tools which are used.
10.
In this paper we will discuss the relevance of discourse studies in education.
11.
Much of the recent research in both theoretical and applied linguistics has been concerned with extending our understanding of language in use.
12.
It has become a commonplace of dramatic criticism over the past ten years or so to suggest that the only adequate analysis of drama must be the analysis of performance.
13.
In an earlier publication (Rubin, 1975), I suggested that studies should be made of the strategies of good language learners.
14.
The popular notion that younger children are better second language (L2) learners than older children, or as expressed by Penfield and Roberts (1959), that there is an optimal prepubertal age for L2 learning, has often been supported by contrasting the native-like fluency of young immigrant L2 learners with the obvious non-native L2 proficiency of many adult immigrants.
15.
Monolingual dictionaries, in the strict sense of monolingual lexical1 dictionaries, form one of the categories into which standard reference works can be divided (others being specialist dictionaries, encyclopaedic dictionaries and encyclopaedias proper).
16.
The concept of style, like the related notions of 'function' and 'situation', is one of the most intractable in the study of language.
17.
One of the main conclusions of the conference on lexicography reported in Householder and Saporta (1962:279) was that dictionaries should be adapted to the needs of specific categories of users.
18.
The collocation wage freeze is recorded as a main entry (variant wages freeze) in the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (1978), and at wage 1 (with
The emphasis in second language teaching and learning theories has shifted in recent years from a 'grammatical' or 'structural' approach to a 'communicative' one
76
(Widdowson 1978, Canale and Swain 1980).
21.
This paper is an attempt to integrate two distinct approaches to scientific texts in the context of English for Science and Technology (EST).
22.
This paper, an earlier version of which was prepared for a series of working papers at the Central Institute of Languages at Hamburg University, sets out to do two basic things: to review the arguments for teaching drama as part of EFL programmes at the tertiary level, and to report on two contrasted approaches to the use of drama at this level.
23.
This paper is a defense of transformational generative grammar.
24.
It has been accepted in the language testing field that when high correlations occur between two or more language tests, they share large common variance.
25.
The aim of this paper is to focus on the sociolinguistic and the linguistic aspects of the contact between English and the vernaculars of India together with the resultant linguistic change.
26.
It is now almost ten years since Selinker (1972) coined the term 'interlanguage' and slightly longer since its sister terms 'approximative system' (Nemser 1971)and 'idiosyncratic dialect' (Corder 1971) appeared.
27.
To label a theoretical position as a 'deficit theory' represents a serious allegation in view of the almost universal rejection by social scientists of theories which attribute minority children's school failure to intrinsic deficiencies within the child.
28.
We support bilingual education.
29.
This paper is a preliminary attempt to investigate some of the possibilities of presenting academic legal texts to learners of English for Academic Legal Purposes (EALP) in order to develop in them a set of appropriate reading strategies to handle authentic unsimplified legal texts on their own.
30.
This paper demonstrates that in one particular type of English for Science and Technology (EST) data, surgical reports of cholecystectomies, the discourse function of the alternation between sentences with indefinite subjects and with the dummy
subject there is to provide an alternation between thematic and no thematic information.
31.
In this paper I discuss the nature of pragmatic failure and ways in which students may be helped to acquire pragmatic competence.
32.
Our understanding of the nature of second and foreign language learning has greatly expanded in recent years as a consequence of research into many dimensions of language and behaviour that were previously unexplored.
33.
Recent years have seen at least forty studies of speech by native speakers (NSs) addressing non-native speakers (NNSs) of the language of communication (for review, see Long 1980, 1981a).
34.
One phenomenon which must be accounted for by any theory of second-language acquisition is the phenomenon of systematic variability in the utterances produced by second-language learners as they attempt to communicate in the target language.
35.
In any study we must first define the units with which we shall be operating in our analyses.
36.
One reason why foreign language teaching keeps so many people in employment(not only in classrooms, but also as methodologists and theorists in various fields)is that, as we devise more and more techniques for dealing with the problems we encounter, we also discover that language learning is more complex than we had thought.
37.
As Bolinger points out in his recent book (1980:17), it is not very difficult to talk about differences between words.
38
.This paper deals mainly with the notion of discourse characteristics of registers and the question of their universality.
39.
In 1973 Dulay and Burt published an article entitled 'Should we teach children syntax?'.
40.
As scholars have become more interested in the strategies used in learning a second or foreign language, they have started to see the value of complementing the results of classroom observation by a trained observer with reports of the learners' own
78
intuitions and insights. In this paper, I will consider the potential of such verbal reports and the ways they can be obtained; at the same time, I shall answer criticisms of this approach to research, such as those presented by Seliger (1983a).
41.
Audiolingualism taught us a long time ago the importance of keeping our learners active in the classroom.
42.
Present theoretical and applied linguistic research frequently incorporates terms like communicative skills and strategies, sociocultural or pragmatic competence, etc.
43.
The paper reports on an ongoing project concerned with a cross-cultural investigation of speech act realization patterns.
44.
The study of cross-cultural communication is a paradigm example of the inseparability of linguistic theory and application.
45.
Investigations of non-native speaker (NNS) discourse have focused primarily on interactions between native speakers (NS) and non-native speakers (see Long 1983afor a review).
46.
The term 'interlanguage' (Selinker 1969, 1972) came into general currency in the early 1970s and since then has been used in a variety of contexts and taken on a variety of meanings.
47.
By the time of school entry, the normal child has made enormous progress in acquiring the fundamental rules of his or her native language.
48.
Communication strategies (CS) have been generally defined as the means that speakers use to solve their communicative problems.
49.
It is now a decade and a half since Corder's (1967) work on 'the significance of learners' errors' began the area of research that has come to be known as 'Interlanguage (IL) Studies, one branch of Second Language Acquisition (SLA).
50.
This paper is the third report on research conducted within the Passau Project on Language Acquisition.
51.
What I shall have to say here is neither difficult nor contentious; the only merit I
should like to claim for it is that of being true, at least in parts.
52.
Citation analysis is something of a misnomer, in that it usually describes studies of bibliographical references, rather than studies of citations embedded in continuous academic text.
53.
The growth of science and the use of English as its principal language of information dissemination have vastly increased the number of science students using English as a second language (ESL) in institutions of higher learning around the world.
54.
The purpose of this paper is to present an explanation of second language discourse in terms of the claims of Vygotskyan psycholinguistics.
55.
Expressing gratitude is a language function that has important social value in American English.
56.
In addition to objective measures such as geographical dispersal, the economic and political influence of English-speaking nations, and the total number of native speakers, the relative importance of English can also be assessed by examining its functional or Vehicular* load.
57.
With greater numbers of non-native speakers of English entering English-medium institutions of higher education around the world, the provision of appropriate English-language training as a preparation for academic study becomes increasingly important.
58.
There have in recent years been a burgeoning number of studies on the characteristics of interactions in which learners take part, be it with native speakers (native-learner interaction, NL) or with other learners (learner-learner interaction, LL).
59.
Since the early 1970s, researchers and teachers in the field of second-language learning have been interested in the cognitive abilities that language learners bring to the task of acquiring another language.
60.
There has been a tendency in recent years to view the process of reading comprehension in extremely global or holistic terms, with an accompanying neglect of that type of 'narrow' reading which focuses on the interpretation of individual clauses and sentences.
80
61.
The research reported in this paper is concerned with investigating the listening comprehension of native English-speaking adolescents listening to their own language.
62.
Second-language acquisition (SLA) research since the late 1960s has adopted either of two approaches.
63.
Terms such as 'formulaic expression', 'conversational routine', and others, though frequently used, have often been somewhat vaguely defined, with considerable variation among authors as to the kinds of item they include under such labels (a point which is made by Haggo and Kuiper (1983) with reference to the papers in Coulmas 1981a).
64.
The apparent ease with which children acquire their first language, together with the striking success of many adults who have picked up a second or third language through everyday experiences in the neighbourhood or workplace, provide impressive testimony to the human capacity for language acquisition.
65.
A considerable body of research has been carried out in the field of language teaching and learning.
66.
The results of many acoustic and perceptual experiments have provided empirical support for the popular belief that the earlier an individual begins to learn a foreign language (henceforth L2), the better will be his or her pronunciation of that language (e.g., Asher and Garcia 1969; Fathman 1975; Cochrane1977; Williams 1979; Tahta et al. 1981; Oyama 1982a, b).
In simultaneous interpretation (SI), interpreters listen, analyse, translate, and speak with a lag of only seconds/words separating the original source-language(SL) version and the target-language (TL) rendition.
69.
Most of the classroom-centred research (CCR) in second-language learning and teaching has been described as either product-orientated or process-orientated (see
Allwright 1983; Gaies 1983; Long 1980, 1984 for detailed reviews of CCR). carried out today. Language teaching (and learning) journals do not include anything on classical languages; interest in this field tends to be restricted to philological and literary publications.
72.
Western language teaching methods aren't effective with Chinese students.
73.
Fundamental to all research on learning a target language are three related concerns:
(1) the assessment of what the learner knows and has yet to learn about the target language; (2) the selection of some aspect of the target grammar to be taught or treated; and (3) the prediction of relative ease of learning.
74.
Among the influences on language pedagogy, two in particular stand out.
Among the influences on language pedagogy, two in particular stand out.