Tourism impacts studies could be traced back to 1960s; positive impacts and later studied on negative impacts were studied (Jafari, 1986). Most commonly, tourism impacts could be discussed in three aspects: economic, socio-culture and environment. Every time when a destination experienced tourism development, it is also affected by both positive and negative impacts. In this section, researcher would
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discuss both positive and negative impacts in these three dimensions.
Once a destination encountered tourism development, it may also be affected by tourism impacts. The studied tourism impacts among residents could be characterized into three groups as economic, socio-cultural and environmental impacts by benefits and costs (Allen, et al., 1988; Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Lankford & Howard, 1994).
The first group is economic; positive and negative impacts have been listed such as increasing income, job opportunities, tax, and inflation. Secondly, in socio-cultural aspect, researchers found out impacts like crime, crowding and community image, awareness of cultural pride and heritage, and improvement of cultural facilities. The last part is environmental; researchers noticed that congestion, pollution, wildlife destruction and improvement of local infrastructure could be positive or negative impacts (Andereck, 1994; Andereck & Jurowski, 2006; Jurowski, 1994; Marcouiller, 1997; Yu, 2011). With positive impacts, the well improved infrastructure, festivals, restaurants, natural and cultural attractions, and recreation/leisure opportunities could be found in an enhanced resident community, thus attaining higher quality of life (Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Liu, et al., 1987; Liu & Var, 1986; McCool & Martin, 1994;
Perdue, et al., 1990).
On the other hand, negative impacts would influence resident community’s quality of life. For example, crowding, traffic congestion, crime, increased cost of
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living and conflict between tourists and residents were common impacts which influenced negatively (Andereck, 1994; Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Brunt & Courtney, 1999; Cohen, 1988; Lindberg & Johnson, 1997; Liu, et al., 1987; McCool & Martin, 1994; Perdue, et al., 1990; Pizam, 1978). With negative impacts, residents’ quality of life could be deteriorated (Allen, et al., 1993; Andereck & Nyaupane, 2010;
Andereck, Valentine, Vogt, & Knopf, 2007; Andereck & Vogt, 2000; Liu, Sheldon,
&Var, 1987).
Economic Impacts
Most conspicuously, higher tax revenues, increased job opportunities, additional incomes are all common and notable indicators for residents’ quality of life under tourism impacts. However, tourism development also brought negative impacts such as inflation. Empirical studies showed positive impacts such as higher tax revenues (Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996; Milman & Pizam, 1988; Tyrrell & Spaulding, 1984), increased job opportunities (Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Liu & Var, 1986; Milman &
Pizam, 1988; Pizam, 1978; Sheldon & Var, 1984; Tyrrell & Spaulding, 1984; Weaver
& Lawton, 2001), additional incomes (Liu, et al., 1987; Prentice, 1993), more investments (Akis, et al., 1996; Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Liu & Var, 1986; Milman &
Pizam, 1988; Sheldon & Var, 1984), improving local economy (Akis, et al., 1996;
Allen, et al., 1988; Perdue, et al., 1990). Moreover, with the help of tourism
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development, the destination may increase living standard or income and services (Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996; Lankford & Howard, 1994;
Liu & Var, 1986; Milman & Pizam, 1988; Pizam, 1978; Tosun, 2002; Weaver &
Lawton, 2001).
On the other hand, a destination may suffer from tourism development in several aspects such as inflation (Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996;
Husbands, 1989; Liu, et al., 1987; Liu & Var, 1986; Pizam, 1978; Ross, 1992; Tosun, 2002; Weaver & Lawton, 2001), increasing price of real estate (Perdue, et al., 1990;
Pizam, 1978; Ross, 1992; Tosun, 2002; Var, et al., 1985; Weaver & Lawton, 2001).
Moreover, with better development of tourism, government would probably tax on residents more than before (Liu & Var, 1986; Perdue, et al., 1990; Ross, 1992).
Table 2-2: Reported empirical studies of economic impacts
Impacts Studies
Economic (positive)
Improving local economy (Akis, et al., 1996; Allen, et al., 1988; Perdue, et al., 1990)
Increasing stand-of-living/income/
economic quality of life
(Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996; Lankford & Howard, 1994; Liu & Var, 1986;
Milman & Pizam, 1988; Pizam, 1978; Tosun, 2002;
Weaver & Lawton, 2001)
Employment (Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Liu & Var, 1986; Milman &
Pizam, 1988; Pizam, 1978; Sheldon & Var, 1984;
Tyrrell & Spaulding, 1984; Weaver & Lawton, 2001) Profitable local businesses (Liu, et al., 1987; Prentice, 1993)
Investments (Akis, et al., 1996; Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Liu & Var, 1986; Milman & Pizam, 1988; Sheldon & Var, 1984) Tax revenue (Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996; Milman & Pizam,
1988; Tyrrell & Spaulding, 1984) Improving infrastructure
and services
(Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Liu & Var, 1986)
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Economic (negative) Inflation of goods and services
(Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996; Husbands, 1989; Liu, et al., 1987; Liu & Var, 1986; Pizam, 1978; Ross, 1992; Tosun, 2002; Weaver
& Lawton, 2001) Increasing price of land and
housing
(Perdue, et al., 1990; Pizam, 1978; Ross, 1992; Tosun, 2002; Var, et al., 1985; Weaver & Lawton, 2001) Increasing tax (Liu & Var, 1986; Perdue, et al., 1990; Ross, 1992) (Source: Yu, 2011)
Socio-cultural Impacts
Tourism development also affect the community’s cultures and social status.
Obviously, tourism helped the community improving quality of fire/police protection or quality of life (Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Liu, et al., 1987; Milman & Pizam, 1988;
Dogan, 1989; McCool & Martin, 1994; Perdue, et al., 1990; Pizam, 1978; Ross, 1992;
Perdue, et al., 1990). Moreover, tourism development also brought cultural exchange (Akis, et al., 1996; Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Keogh, 1989; Liu, et al., 1987; Liu & Var, 1986), increasing availability of recreation facilities/opportunities (Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Liu, et al., 1987; McCool & Martin, 1994; Perdue, et al., 1990; Pizam, 1978;
Ross, 1992) and increasing demand for historical and cultural exhibits (Liu & Var, 1986). Tourism development could also preserve cultural identity (Liu & Var, 1986;
Pizam, 1978), provide educational experience (Liu, et al., 1987; Liu & Var, 1986) and improve understanding through different cultures (Liu, et al., 1987; Liu & Var, 1986;
Milman & Pizam, 1988; Pizam, 1978).
However, tourism development may disturb residents’ living in several aspects.
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For one thing, congestion (Akis, et al., 1996; Brunt & Courtney, 1999; Lindberg &
Johnson, 1997; Liu & Var, 1986; Long, et al., 1990; McCool & Martin, 1994;
Prentice, 1993; Rothman, 1978; Tyrrell & Spaulding, 1984) would be the most apparent problem. Secondly, illegal act such as crime (Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Brunt &
Courtney, 1999; Cohen, 1988; Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996; King, et al., 1993;
Lankford & Howard, 1994; Lindberg & Johnson, 1997; Liu, et al., 1987; Liu & Var, 1986; Milman & Pizam, 1988; Tosun, 2002), drug use/addiction and alcoholism (Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996; King, et al., 1993; Tosun, 2002) and sexual permissiveness (King, et al., 1993) were common negative impacts observed by researchers. For another thing is the degeneration of cultures. Researchers have found out culture commercialization in a destination after undergoing tourism development (Ap & Crompton, 1993; Cohen, 1988; Liu & Var, 1986; Weaver & Lawton, 2001).
Table 2-3: Reported empirical studies of socio-cultural impacts
Impacts Studies
Socio-cultural (positive) Increasing availability of recreation
facilities/opportunities
(Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Liu, et al., 1987; McCool &
Martin, 1994; Perdue, et al., 1990; Pizam, 1978;
Ross, 1992) Improving quality of
fire/police protection
(Keogh, 1989; Milman & Pizam, 1988; Pizam, 1978)
Increasing availability of entertainment/cultural activities
(Liu & Var, 1986)
Improving quality of life (Dogan, 1989; Milman & Pizam, 1988; Perdue, et al., 1990; Pizam, 1978)
Improving understanding and (Liu, et al., 1987; Liu & Var, 1986; Milman &
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image of different communities/culture
Pizam, 1988; Pizam, 1978) Enables meeting visitors (an
educational experience)
(Liu, et al., 1987; Liu & Var, 1986) Increasing demand for
historical and cultural exhibits
(Liu & Var, 1986)
Promoting cultural exchange (Akis, et al., 1996; Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Keogh, 1989; Liu, et al., 1987; Liu & Var, 1986)
Preserving cultural identity (Liu & Var, 1986; Pizam, 1978) Socio-cultural (negative)
Congestion (Akis, et al., 1996; Brunt & Courtney, 1999;
Lindberg & Johnson, 1997; Liu & Var, 1986;
Long, et al., 1990; McCool & Martin, 1994;
Prentice, 1993; Rothman, 1978; Tyrrell &
Spaulding, 1984)
Increasing crime (Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Brunt & Courtney, 1999;
Cohen, 1988; Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996;
King, et al., 1993; Lankford & Howard, 1994;
Lindberg & Johnson, 1997; Liu, et al., 1987; Liu
& Var, 1986; Milman & Pizam, 1988; Tosun, 2002)
Increasing drug use/addiction and alcoholism
(Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996; King, et al., 1993; Tosun, 2002)
Increasing sexual permissiveness
(King, et al., 1993)
Culture commercialization (Ap & Crompton, 1993; Cohen, 1988; Liu & Var, 1986; Weaver & Lawton, 2001)
(Source: Yu, 2011)
Environmental Impacts
Environment could be changed and affected by human activities, so tourism development could also alter a destination’s environment. Researchers have found not only negative impacts but also positive impacts. Once a destination underwent
tourism development, it must sacrificed its environment. For example, pollution was the most evident impacts for a destination (Andereck, 1994; Pizam, 1978). Moreover, ecological degradation was also a severe problem for a destination (Andereck, 1994;
Kendall & Var, 1984; Liu & Var, 1986); throughout unlimited development,
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researchers also found littering and solid waste in the destination (Brunt & Courtney, 1999; Lankford & Howard, 1994).
Yet, tourism development could also inspire environmental senses thus improving host area’s appearance (Perdue, et al., 1987, 1990) or else help local community in environment and wildlife protection and improvement (Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Liu, et al., 1987; Liu & Var, 1986). Besides, tourism development could also preserve historic buildings (Liu, et al., 1987; Sheldon & Var, 1984) and provide recreation facilities and opportunities (Liu, et al., 1987; Liu & Var, 1986; McCool & Martin, 1994; Perdue, et al., 1990).
Table 2-4: Reported empirical studies of environmental impacts
Impacts Studies
Environmental (positive) More leisure/recreation facilities and opportunities
(Liu, et al., 1987; Liu & Var, 1986; McCool &
Martin, 1994; Perdue, et al., 1990) Environment/wildlife
protection and improvement
(Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Liu, et al., 1987; Liu &
Var, 1986) Improving host area’s
appearance
(Perdue, et al., 1987, 1990) Preservation of historic
buildings
(Liu, et al., 1987; Sheldon & Var, 1984) Environmental (negative)
Traffic congestion/crowding (Andereck, 1994; Brunt & Courtney, 1999;
Lindberg & Johnson, 1997; Liu, et al., 1987;
McCool & Martin, 1994; Perdue, et al., 1990;
Pizam, 1978)
Pollutions (Andereck, 1994; Pizam, 1978)
Ecological degradation (Andereck, 1994; Kendall & Var, 1984; Liu &
Var, 1986)
Littering/solid waste (Brunt & Courtney, 1999; Lankford & Howard, 1994)
(Source: Yu, 2011)
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