The researchers in the field of language teaching have further categorized
“role-play” into various types. Following are five classification schemes proposed by different scholars, including Littlewood (1981), Sturtridge (1981), Bryne (1986), Savignon (1997), and Cross (1999) (See Table 1).
Table 1. Five Classification Schemes of Role-play Proposed by Different Scholars
Chapter 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5
2.2.1 Littlewood’s (1981) role-play framework with six types Role-playing controlled through cued dialogues.
It is considered a simple role-play activity, with separate role cards and a semi-communicative context. The cues on the cards can give learners chances to predict what others will say and to prepare responses beforehand. It involves learners in a “real” communication. Teachers are suggested to first equip learners with useful forms and give feedback about the forms used by learners after the activity (See Table 2).
Table 2. Example of Role-playing Controlled through Cued Dialogues
A: Suggest somewhere to go together.
B:
B: Reject A’s suggestion. Make a different suggestion.
A:
B: Express pleasure.
Role-playing controlled through cues and information.
This role-play activity is considered more flexible, with separate role cards given to participants--one with detailed cues and the other with the hints of things to say.
Teachers can thus control the interaction and assure that participants express specific meanings (See Table 3).
Table 3. Example of Role-playing Controlled through Cues and Information (from Littlewood, 1981, p.52)
Student A: You arrive at a small hotel one evening. In the hotel, you meet the manager and:
Ask if there is a room vacant………
Ask the price, including breakfast………..
Say how many nights you would like to stay………
Ask where you can park your car for the night………
Say what time you would like to have breakfast………..
Student B: You are the manager of a small hotel that prides itself on its friendly, homely atmosphere. You have a single and a double room vacant for tonight. The prices are: $8.50 for the single room, $15.00 for the double room. Breakfast is $1.50 extra per person. In the street behind the hotel, there is a free car park. Guests can have tea in bed in the morning, for 50p.
Role-playing controlled through situation and goals.
In this activity, only the overall situation and its goals for both of the participants are given. Participants take more responsibility to create their interaction through the limited “shared information” (See Table 4).
Table 4. Example of Role-playing Controlled through Situation and Goals (from Littlewood, 1981, p.55)
Student A:
You wish to buy a car. You are in a showroom, looking at a second-hand car that might be suitable. You decide to find out more about it, for example how old it is, who the previous owner was, how expensive it is to run and whether there is a guarantee.
You can pay up to about $10,000 in cash.
Student B:
You are a car salesman. You see a customer looking at a car in the showroom. The car is two years old and belonged previously to the leader of a local pop group. It does about twenty miles to the gallon. Your firm offers a three-month guarantee and can arrange hire purchase. The price you are asking for the car is $13,000.
Role-playing in the form of debate and discussion.
The situation in this role-play activity is a debate or a discussion on an issue.
After understanding the relevant information about the issue, participants have to listen to talks and express their different opinions to defend. Finally, they have to make a conclusion or vote for the issue. Teachers could ask participants to re-organize all the ideas and write a report after the activity. Therefore, different language skills can be integrated in this activity.
Large-scale simulation activities.
This activity is considered an extended role-play (i.e. a longer role-play), which is mostly used in other fields, like geography and decision-making. With much time and many resources employed, it can be quite long and complicated.
Improvisation.
Learners can be the most creative in this role-play activity because they are given
only a starting situation which may be relevant to daily life without specific communicative purposes. They interpret the situation themselves and use the target language to express their imagination (See Table 5).
Table 5. Example of Improvisation (from Littlewood, 1981, p.59) You are travelling on an underground train. Suddenly it stops between two stations. At first you take no notice, but soon you all begin to wonder what is
happening. It gets warmer and warmer. You become more and more nervous. After 10 minutes, to your relief, the train begins to move again.
2.2.2 Sturtridge’s (1981) role-play framework with five examples
Despite the differences among the five examples, Sturtridge suggested that it is simple to discover one apparent feature of role-play: students are free to choose the words which they are going to use or to develop the situation which they prefer.
Table 6. Example 1. (from Sturtridge, 1981, p.126) At the Post Office
A: I’d like to post this ________________, please.
B: Put it on the scales. Where to?
A: To ______________.
B: That’ll be ____________________.
A: _________________________.
B: _________________________.
The first example is much easier for teachers to conduct because it can be found in textbooks or written on the blackboard. This dialogue with slots looks like a controlled practice (See Table 6). However, it still leaves freedom for learners to develop a new or even surprising dialogue. In order to select an appropriate setting and roles, teachers are suggested to take a close look at what learners are familiar with and what they need. Those should not be remote from their experiences; otherwise,
the language may become “unreal”. In this activity, learners usually feel safe because they play the roles of others, not themselves. It is similar to Livingstone’s (1983) role-playing with skeleton dialogues (See Table 7).
Table 7. Example of Role-playing with Skeleton Dialogues (from Livingstone, 1983, p.16)
Go into the grocer’s and buy some things.
A: Good ______________, can ______________?
B: __________ like ____________ and _____________. (etc.)
Table 8. Example 2 (from Sturtridge, 1981, p.127) The Invitation
You meet your friend B at school. You are having a party on Saturday and you would like B to come. The party is informal. Tell B what time to come. Say how glad you are that he is coming.
Cues:
- We are having a party…
Are you doing anything on Saturday?
- It’s very informal…
Come as you are.
- That’s great.
That’ll be lovely.
In the second example, learners play the roles as themselves and are given a role-card with a social situation and various potential expressions (See Table 8).
Although cues are provided, learners have to select proper ones which suit their setting and personalities. In other words, learners can realize that not all of the formula can be utilized in every situation.
Table 9. Example 3 (from Sturtridge, 1981, p.128) Borrowing something
A 2 Friends Ask B to lend you something.
--- Give object to A (words or action).
--- End conversation.
The third example with pair cards is a kind of information gap activity. The roles’
relationship and sequential moves are clearly given. Learners can use the wording which they prefer to complete the instructions on the cards (See Table 9). Compared with Example 1 and 2, this activity is more like a real-life communication where information is exchanged. The advantage of this design is that paired learners can exchange cards after they complete the first practice. Advanced learners are encouraged to exchange cards with other pairs. Teachers can even give them more challenging pair cards. It can easily cater to individual’s proficiency level and learning pace. On the other hand, the disadvantage of this work is that teachers have to teach learners specific language functions beforehand, such as “agree: add a condition”.
Table 10. Example 4 & Example 5 (from Sturtridge, 1981, p.129-130) Example 4
The Canbian Educational Aid Project S. Dawson A Language Inspector
You are on good terms with your superior, Mr. Green, the Chief Language Inspector, although you often disagree with him. However, you are ready to argue against anything Mr. K. Brown, the Teacher Trainer, says as you are old opponents. You want the money to be spent on tapes and tape recorders.
─ Point out that the country needs equipment.
─ Argue that tape recorders would be easier for inexperienced staff and technicians than language laboratories.
Example 5
What are they going to do when they leave school?
In this simulation a group of secondary school teachers learning English have the task of finding careers of four school leavers. They have details of the careers and openings available and the qualifications, training and characteristics needed for the job. They have to match this information with what they know of the boys and girls from school reports and references. They have to be ready to suggest careers that might suit and interest the school-leavers. The information they receive is both in print and on tape and so they practice both reading and listening skills as they collect the information. No role-cards are given because the teachers are aware of the problems of school-leavers deciding on careers and can give their advice both as people and teachers.
The first three examples are designed with the practice of specific language functions and limited information exchange in a narrow situation. Conversely, the fourth and fifth examples are designed with a simulation to provide learners with extended interaction outside the classroom and opportunities to solve simulated problems. The distinguishing difference between the last two examples is that Example 4 is conducted with a role card while Example 5 without. A role card can help learners know more about what personality or opinions their roles have and how they can respond to certain situations (See Table 10).
2.2.3 Bryne’s (1986) role-play framework with five types Open-ended dialogues.
This role-play activity establishes a starting dialogue for learners. Teachers can write it on the blackboard. What learners have to do is to use creativity to develop it.
In most cases, this role-play is simple and suitable for those at elementary or intermediate levels. Learners may easily feel curious about others’ dialogues (See Table 11).
Table 11. Examples of Open-ended Dialogues (from Bryne, 1986, p.119) A= assistant in a bookshop
B= customer
A: Hello. Can I help you?
B: Well, I’m looking for a copy of…
A: Do you know the author’s name?
B: …
A: Hm. I’m pretty sure we haven’t got a copy.
Would you like me to order one for you?
B: … A: … B: …
Mapped dialogues.
Separate cards, with different “functional cues” on them, are used in this role-play activity. Participants have different information on their own cards and need to exchange unknown information with each other. Hence, this role-play can be considered a kind of information gap activity. Even though participants’ moves are almost controlled throughout this mini-dialogue practice, some learners still think it is difficult to work out this kind of role-play (See Table 12).
Table 12. Examples of Mapped Dialogues (from Bryne, 1986, p.120) 1. Invite B to go out with you.
2. Suggest another possibility.
3. Confirm arrangements.
1. Decline.
2. Accept.
3. Agree.
Role instructions.
This role-play activity provides not only the overall setting and steps of how participants should interact but also some examples of useful phrasing for participants to choose. Since the instructions are usually simple, this activity seems as effective as open-ended dialogues to set up a role-play situation (See Table 13).
Table 13. Examples of Role Instructions (from Bryne, 1986, p.120) You go into a bookshop to buy a book. (Describe author and title.) Ask the bookseller if he has the book. If the book is not available, decide whether to order it.
I’m looking for…
Have you got…?
I wonder if you have…
Scenarios.
The role-play activity based on scenarios usually displays the sequence of events either in a written form or through pictures, without providing the exact words for participants. The situation in this activity can be a real-life event or a fantasy. During the preparation for a scenario, groups of participants have to undergo plentiful discussion on where it occurs, what personalities the characters have, what they will say, who will play the parts, what props they will use, and how the scenario can be modified (See Table 14).
Table 14. Examples of Scenarios (from Byrne, 1986, p.121)
A went into a café. There was rather a long queue. A wanted to look at the menu, but B was standing in front of it. So A asked B to read the menu to him. A made various comments as B did this.
A decided to have a salad. The salad section was located further along the counter. A asked a number of people for permission to pass.
A picked up his salad and went towards the cash desk. On the way, he passed C, who was carrying a tray of food. A bumped into C and knocked the tray out of his hand.
Scripted roleplay.
The exact words which participants are going to say are provided in this kind of activity. The typical examples are textbook dialogues and a scene from a play. This role-play activity seems to provide a safe and risk-free way for participants, but it is actually far from easy. Participants have to not only read the words aloud but also act out their interpretations that should be consistent with the text. When conducting a scripted roleplay, teachers are suggested to emphasize more on getting students to
look beyond the words than asking them to perform in front of the audience. For instance, teachers can get students to explore different perspectives, such as how the setting can be made as real as possible, what the relationships between characters are, how they could move when talking, and what facial expressions they could have.
2.2.4 Savignon’s (1997) role-play framework with two main types Scripted role-playing.
This activity requires the use of the written dialogues for role-play, such as poetry reading and three-act plays. The prepared scripts usually give participants opportunities to think about the intention of the dialogues. This role-play practice can be used to prepare a formal stage performance with lights, props, and costumes.
Unscripted role-playing.
A setting and specific roles with brief descriptions are first given to groups of learners. Learners need time to think about how their roles might act and what they can say. When this kind of activity is conducted in a language classroom, learners are suggested to enact their role-play in different ways, such as audience participation, characters in a novel, or hand puppets to replace actors. A discussion can be held for sharing reflections after group presentations.
2.2.5 Cross’ (1999) role-play framework with two main types Prescribed role play.
Teachers usually firstly utilize a traditional presentation-practice method to teach participants a range of useful formulaic expressions and vocabulary which are relevant to the setting of the role-play. Then a talk card with successive tasks is given to each group. Participants have to use their limited linguistic resources to express the specific meanings (See Table 15). Some scholars argued that it is another practice
activity rather than a real communicative activity. However, Cross believes that prescribed role-play is helpful especially when students are low-achievers and the language is new. On the other hand, it can be challenging to high-achievers if the information on the card is written in their mother tongue.
Table 15. Examples of Prescribed Role Play (from Cross, 1999, p.286) AT THE HOTEL
A. Check if there are any vacancies.
B. Ask what sort of room the traveler needs.
A. Explain that there are four of you, so you want two rooms.
B. What facilities do they need?
A. Shower, W.C., preferably a nice view.
B. You have one room only with shower. There is another large double with bathroom.
A. Accept. Check on view from each room. Balcony?
B. Describe. Ask how long they will stay.
A. Two days. Price?
B. Give price.
A. Check if tax and extras are included.
B. Reply. Offer breakfast as option.
A. Accept. Does hotel offer main meals?
B. Affirm. Give prices.
Free role play.
Only a context is orally given to students, and they have to develop what will happen in the following. Their preparation for this activity is allowed to be done after school. Props can even be brought in to make the play interesting. Although this task is more demanding, there are still some advantages in this activity. For instance, beginners can be responsible for simple lines while advanced learners can freely develop their role-plays with creativity and knowledge (See Table 16).
Table 16. Examples of Free Role Play (from Cross, 1999, p.287)
-You are going to talk to a landlord about an apartment which you may want to rent.
-You are in a post office in the USA and want to send a parcel home.
-You are in a job center, looking for summer work.
2.2.6 Conclusion of Different Types of Role-play
Although there have been up to twenty types of role-play activities proposed by different scholars, they still share some similarities (see Table 17). In the following, these types of role-play are compared in terms of five degrees of language control:
with exact words provided, with slots hinted by contextual cues, with specific sequential moves provided, with a whole setting and useful expressions provided, and with only an overall/initial situation provided.
Table 17. Conclusion of Different Types of Role-play
Scholars
As can be seen in the table above, those twenty role-play activities can be divided into five categories in terms of different levels of language control: Category 1 ─ With exact words provided, or memorized dialogues (i.e. Bryne’s Scripted roleplay, Savignon’s Scripted role-playing), Category 2 ─ with slots hinted by contextual cues (i.e. Sturtridge’s Example 1, Livingstone’s Skeleton dialogues), Category 3 ─ with specific sequential moves provided (i.e. Littlewood’s Cued dialogues, Littlewood’s Cues & information, Sturtridge’s Example 3, Bryne’s Mapped dialogues, Cross’ Prescribed role play), Category 4─with a whole setting and useful expressions provided (i.e. Sturtridge’s Example 2, Bryne’s Role instructions), Category 5─with only an overall/initial situation provided (i.e. Littlewood’s Situation
& goals, Littlewood’s Improvisation, Bryne’s Scenarios, Bryne’s Open-ended dialogues, Savignon’s Unscripted role-playing, Cross’ Free role play).
Role-play’s with exact words provided is the most controlled type. Bryne’s
“scripted roleplay” and Savignon’s “scripted role-playing” belong to this category because both of them require the written dialogues for role-play. Students need to not only memorize lines but also learn to look beyond the words. With slots hinted by contextual cues is the second most controlled role-play’s. Sturtridge’s example 1 and Livingstone’s “skeleton dialogues” are of this type. Although both of them tend to be teacher-centered, students are still given the latitude to choose their own words.
Littlewood’s “cued dialogues”, “cues & information”, Sturtridge’s example 3, Bryne’s “mapped dialogues”, and Cross’ “prescribed role play” all have the feature of providing students with specific sequential moves. Although students’ moves seem controlled throughout these practices, they can still make sentences with the wording they prefer to complete the task. Among these five types, “mapped dialogues”, with concise functional cues, seem the shortest. “Cues & information” , for giving learners more freedom to create the interaction and making teachers less able to predict in
detail what learners will say, tends to be more flexible than “cued dialogues”.
Sturtridge’s example 3 is considered the most similar to “cued dialogues” because the ways in which the sequential moves of these two types provided are almost the same.
Slightly different from the other four types, “prescribed role-play” usually incorporates the traditional grammar presentation-practice instruction into the beginning of the activity for the purpose of equipping learners with target formulaic expressions.
Sturtridge’s example 2 and Bryne’s “role instructions” both allow participants to
Sturtridge’s example 2 and Bryne’s “role instructions” both allow participants to