2.3.1 The Concept of Work Motivation
The different areas of psychology define and treat the concept of motivation in vastly different ways (Miner, 2006). The basic of motivation is to determine what causes certain behavior to happen and why people are doing what they are doing (Reeve, 1997). People are motivated by a great variety of needs, which in turn vary in order of importance and over time or in different situations. The understanding of human needs is, according to Wright (1989), only the first step towards predicting and influencing work behavior. There is no single definition of work motivation due to the
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complexity of the concept. Some theorists have found it more useful to concentrate on physiological aspects, whilst some stress the behavioral aspects and others the rationality of human beings (Pinder, 1998). Work motivation is that a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual‟s being, to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration (Pinder, 1998). Furthermore, Locke and Latham (2004) deeply defined work motivation as the direction (choice), intensity (effort), and duration (persistence) of work behavior. This definition recognizes the influence on work-related behavior of both environmental forces (e.g. organizational reward systems) and forces inherent in the person (e.g. individual needs and motives).
2.3.2 Theories of Work Motivation
In general, there are two main types of work motivation theory that have been used to explain motivational issues like levels of work motivation, job satisfaction and what effects these aspects have on work behaviour (Lundberg, Gudmundson &
Andersson, 2009). These theories are called need theories and process theories.
While need theories concentrate on the emotional aspects of motivation, process theories of motivation emphasize the role of cognitive processes (however emotional factors are not ignored) (Wright, 1989). Process theories are suitable for in-depth case-studies whereas we believe that need theories provide a more suitable approach in order to reach our objective at a general level. Need theories of motivation will therefore be used in this study. Need theories are based on the assumption that people‟s needs provide the force, which directs action towards fulfillment of these needs (Wright, 1989; Pinder, 1998). Need theories stress the identification of different needs which motivate behavior. By identifying the needs and by fulfilling them it is assumed that people will become motivated at work (Wright, 1989).
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Several theoretical motive systems that emphasized the need for orientation of employees have been developed. Most notable of these are Herzberg‟s two-factor theory (1959), Maslow‟s need hierarchy theory (1954), McClelland‟s three needs (APA) theory (1961), Vroom‟s theory of motivation (1964), and Alderfer‟s existence, relatedness and growth (ERG) theory (1972). Especially, Herzberg was the first scholar who divided motivation to two factors. Therefore, two-factor theory was hereby made descriptions as follows.
Two-Factor Theory Herzberg‟s influential need theory of the 1960‟s, the
two-factor theory, suggested that humans have two different sets of needs and that the different elements of the work situation satisfies or dissatisfies these needs (Wright, 1989). The first set concerns the basic survival needs of a person – the hygiene factors (Herzberg, 1971; Herzberg, Mausner & Bloch Snyderman, 2005). These factors are not directly related to the job itself, but concern the conditions that surround performing that job. The factors are company policy such as reward system, salary, and interpersonal relations (Herzberg, 1971; Herzberg et al., 2005; Tietjen & Myers, 1998). According to Herzberg, these factors can cause dissatisfaction when not satisfied. However, when satisfied these factors do not motivate or cause satisfaction, they only prevent dissatisfaction (Herzberg, 1971; Herzberg et al., 2005).
The second set of needs is growth needs, which refers to factors intrinsic within the work itself, for example recognition of a task completed, achievement, responsibility, advancement and work itself. These factors are according to Herzberg, the motivating factors, which implies that humans try to become all that they are capable of becoming and when satisfied they work as motivators (Herzberg, 1971, Herzberg et al., 2005). According to Herzberg, content of work, (e.g. opportunities for responsibility and advancement) is the only way to increase satisfaction and thereby
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enhance work motivation (Wright, 1989). However, when the growth factors are missing this does not cause dissatisfaction, simply an absence of satisfaction (Herzberg, 1971; Herzberg et al., 2005).
It is important to note that the growth and hygiene factors are assumed to be separate and distinct, operating independently of one another. In other words, increased hygiene factors do not produce job satisfaction; they simply eliminate job dissatisfaction. Similarly, decreases in the adequacy of growth variable do not produce job dissatisfaction, but preclude job satisfaction (Hoff, Ellis & Crossley, 1988).
2.3.3 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Work Motivation
However, Brief and Aldag (1977) integrated most notable need theories of motivation and proposed the following definition:
Intrinsic work motivation is a cognitive state reflecting the extent to which the worker attributes the force of his or her task behaviors to outcomes derived from the task per se; that is, from outcomes which are not mediated by a source external to the task-person situation. Such a state of motivation can be characterized as a self-fulfilling experience. And intrinsic work motivation to engage in work primarily for its own sake, because the work itself is interesting, engaging, or in some way satisfying. (Amabile, et al., 1994) When intrinsically motivated, people engage in activities that interest them, and they do so freely, with a full sense of volition and without the necessity of material rewards or constraints (Deci & Ryan, 1985).
Extrinsic work motivation is a cognitive state reflecting the extent to which the worker attributes the force of his or her task behaviors to having and/or expecting to receive or experience some extrinsic outcome. Such a state of motivation can
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be characterized as a regulated or instrumental experience. And extrinsic work motivation to work primarily in response to something apart from the work itself, such as reward or recognition or the dictates of other people(Amabile, et al., 1994). Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is instrumental in nature. They are performed not out of interest but because they are believed to be instrumental to some separable consequence (Deci & Ryan, 1985).