Absolute Responsivity

After the relative response is taken, the blackbody radiation at high temperature

is used to get the absolute responsivity. Responsivity is the ratio of the output S

(usually in amperes or volts) to the radiant input

I

e⁽O) (in watts). Considered blackbody source at temperature T modulated at a frequency f that produces the

observed output

radiation power. T and f express blackbody source temperature and chopper

frequency.

Figure 2.12 displays the schematic diagram showing the setup for measuring the

responsivity. The blackbody source is 800 K for a thermal infrared detector test. The

variable-speed chopper modulates the signal at a frequency f by rotating a notched

wheel in front of the source. The notches alternately cover and uncover the source,

producing a nearly square-wave signal if the source aperture is small compared to the

notch width. The detector is located at a known distance from the source so that the

signal on the detector can be calculated. The photocurrent with applied bias was

amplified by SR570 current preamplifier and transferred into the voltage signal. Both

the chopper frequency controller and the preamplifier signal were connected with

SR830 DSP lock-in-amplifier to demodulate the voltage signal.

The absolute peak responsivity (R_peak) formula can be obtained by measuring

both the responsivity and the relative spectral response

]

Where S is the photo-voltage measured by lock-in-amplifier, ABB, A_d are areas of

blackbody source and detector, respectively, TKRS-5, TGaAs are transmission coefficients

of KRS-5 windows (0.7) and GaAs (0.8) respectively, FF is chopper modulation factor

and our system is 0.45, R is the distance between blackbody source and detector, TBB,

Trm are absolute temperature of blackbody source (800 K) and background (300 K),

R’(O) is normalized relative spectral response, M(O^,TBB) is blackbody radiation energy.

The Eq. (2-2) indicates the radiance of difference of blackbody light source and

background light source. The π ʳ factor is taking into account that blackbody light

source and background light source are Lambertian Radiators. The absolute spectral

response can be obtained by absolute peak responsivity multiplying by normalized

relative spectral response.

30

˕˿˴˶˾˵̂˷̌ʳ̅˴˷˼˴̇˼̂́ʻˋ˃˃˾ʼ

˗˸̇˸˶̇̂̅ʳ˼́ʳ˶̅̌̂̆̇˴̇

˗˦ˣʳ˿̂˶˾ˀ˼́ˀ˴̀̃˿˼˹˼˸̅

ʻ˦˥ˋˆ˃ʼ ˖̂̀̃̈̇˸̅

˖̈̅̅˸́̇ʳ˴̀̃˿˼˹˼˸̅

ʻ˦˥ˈˊ˃ʼ

˼́̃̈̇

̂̈̇̃̈̇

˥˸˹˸̅˸́˶˸

˶˻̂̃̃˸̅

ˠ̂˷̈˿˴̇˸˷ʳ

˜˥

Fig. 2.12 The setup to measure absolute spectral response.

2.3.5 Specific Detectivity

Detectivity is the signal to noise ratio (SNR). The larger SNR, the better device

is. The more useful figure of merit is the normalized detectivity D*, which normalizes

the detector area and bandwidth

D* =

n p d

i f A

R '

(2-3)

Where R_p is the responsivity of the detector, A_d is the area of the detector, 'f ^{is the}

bandwidth of the measurement and

i

n is the noise current, which is attributed to the

shot noise. It can be expressed as

in = 4eI^dgⁿ'f (2-4)

The advantage of D* as a figure of merit is that it is normalized to an active

detector area of 1 cm² and noise bandwidth of 1 Hz. Therefore, D* may be used to

compared directly the merit of detectors of different size whose performance was

measured using different bandwidths.

32

2.4 Edge Thinning Introduction

Edge thinning is the structure which reduces the surface leakage current by

pinching off surface depletion region and junction depletion region in the edge. It was

facilitated on heterojunction bipolar transistor to reduce the surface recombination and

consequently enhance the current gain. In this work, edge thinning structure is

adopted to reduce the surface leakage current of quantum dot infrared photodetector

(QDIP) and consequently enhance its operation temperature.

Fig. 2.13 The pinching off mechanism of edge thinning structure.

As Fig. 2.13 shows, the profile of surface depletion region is different between

devices with edge thinning structure and those without because of the profile of

surface edge. In device with edge thinning structure, the junction depletion region and

the surface depletion region may pinch off in the edge and consequently block the

path of surface leakage current. As a result, the surface leakage current may be

reduced and the operation temperature could be enhanced.

n

Junction depletion region Surface depletion region

No edge thinning Edge thinning

pinch off

The thickness of junction depletion region can be

Where ߝ_௦ is the dielectric constant; V_bi , the built-in potential ; e, the electronic charge; Nd , the n-type doping concentration; ni , the intrinsic carrier concentration.

The thickness of surface depletion region can be evaluated by the minority

carrier hole concentration as a function of distance from the surface.

¸ ¸

The parameter s is called the surface recombination velocity ; g’, the generation

rate of the excess carrier; ߬_௣௢, the excess minority carrier lifetime; Dp ,the diffusion

coefficient of the excess minority carrier; L_P , the diffusion length of the excess

minority carrier. The thickness of surface depletion region can be evaluated as the

distance from the transition point of the steady state of

G

p(x) to the surface.

The appropriate thickness of edge thinning structure is supposed to be close to

the sum of the thickness of junction depletion region and the surface depletion region

so that they can pinch off and consequently block the surface leakage current.

34

2.5 Atomic Layer Deposition Mechanism and the transmission of Al 2 O 3 in the infrared

spectrum

In air H2O vapor is adsorbed on most surfaces, forming a hydroxyl group. After

placing the substrate in the reactor, Trimethyl Aluminum (TMA) is pulsed into the

reaction chamber as Fig. 2.14 (a). Then, Trimethyl Aluminum (TMA) reacts with the

adsorbed hydroxyl groups, producing methane (CH4) as the reaction product as shown

in Fig. 2.14 (b). Trimethyl Aluminum (TMA) will react with the adsorbed hydroxyl

groups, until the surface is passivated. However, TMA does not react with itself,

terminating the reaction to one layer. This causes the perfect uniformity of ALD. Then,

the excess TMA is pumped away with methane reaction product as Fig. 2.14 (c). After

the TMA and methane reaction product is pumped away, water vapor (H2O) is pulsed

into the reaction chamber again as Fig. 2.14 (d). H2O will react with the dangling

methyl groups on the new surface forming aluminum-oxygen (Al-O) bridges and

hydroxyl surface groups, and waiting for a new TMA pulse. The reaction product

methane is pumped away again as Fig. 2.14 (e). However, excess H2O vapor does not

react with the hydroxyl surface groups, again causing perfect passivation to one

atomic layer as Fig. 2.14 (f). One TMA and one H2O vapor pulse form one cycle, with

approximately 1 Angstrom per cycle. Each cycle including pulsing and pumping takes

3 seconds as Fig. 2.14 (g). Since each pair of gas pulses (one cycle) produces exactly

one monolayer of film, the thickness of the resulting film may be precisely controlled

by the number of deposition cycles. Figs. 2.14 (a) to (g) show the Al2O3 forming

process sequences.

Fig. 2.15 shows the transmission of GaAs substrate (S.I) and GaAs with

10-nm-thick Al2O3 layer deposited by ALD in the infrared spectrum. Obviously, the

transmission of GaAs substrate and GaAs with Al2O3 layer in the infrared spectrum

are similar. It means that the Al2O3 layer does not absorb infrared light. Hence, the

Al2O3 layer deposited by ALD doesn’t block the QDIPs’ absorbsion of infrared light.

36

Fig. 2.14 The Al

2

O

3

layer forming process sequence.

Fig. 2.15 The transmission of GaAs and GaAs with Al

2

O

3

layer in the infrared spectrum

.

4 8 12 16 20 24

0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30

T ran sm ittan c e

Wavelength

⁽

_P O

⁾

GaAs

GaAs/10nm Al₂O₃

38

Chapter 3 Edge Thinning Structure with Different Depths on QDIPs

Self-assembled InAs quantum dots (QDs) on GaAs substrate using Stranski-

Ќrastanov (SK) growth mode by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) have attracted much

attention in recent years [38-39]. Due to its long capture and relaxation times, the QD

structure is suitable for the optoelectronic applications of the infrared photodetectors

[40-42], lasers [43], and optical memories [44]. The fabrication of QDIPs has

attracted growing interest recently [45-47]. Although the advantages such as

high-temperature operation and insensitivity to incident light polarization have made

QDIPs superior than quantum-well infrared photodetectors (QWIPs) for applications.

It still needs lots of efforts to achieve room temperature operation.

In this work, the edge thinning structure is adopted to reduce the dark current and

enhance the operation temperature. In this chapter, the edge thinning structure with

different depths on QDIPs will be investigated.

3.1 The Effect of Edge Thinning Structure with Different Depths on IV Characteristics of QDIPs

3.1.1 Sample Preparation

The samples investigated in this article named QDIP75 were grown on

(100)-oriented semi-insulating GaAs substrates using a Riber Compact 21

solid-source molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE) system. The device structure is shown in

Fig. 3.1 The active region consists of ten periods of 2.4 ML (monolayer) InAs QD

layers separated by 30-nm-thick undoped GaAs barrier layers. 600 and 300 nm n⁺

GaAs layers doped with n=2×10¹⁸ cm⁻³ were grown to sandwich the active region as

the bottom and top contact layers.

Three devices are fabricated as shown in Fig. 3.2 (a), (b), (c), respectively.

Device A is the standard device without edge thinning structure, which was etched

down directly to bottom contact layer in a mesa pattern (ʹͺͲ ൈ ͳͺͲρ^ଶ) to form

bottom ohmic contact. Device B is the device with edge thinning structure at top

contact layer, which was first etched down to top contact layer in a mesa pattern

(ʹͺͲ ൈ ͳͺͲρ^ଶ) and then further etched down to bottom contact layer in a larger

mesa pattern (͵ͲͲ ൈ ʹͲͲρ^ଶ) to form bottom ohmic contact. Device C is the device

with edge thinning structure at quantum dot layer, which was first etched down to

40

the bottom contact layer in a larger mesa pattern (͵ͲͲ ൈ ʹͲͲρ^ଶ) to form bottom

ohmic contact. The thicknesses of the edge structure are between 100nm~200nm.

Fig. 3.1 The schematic diagram of device structure (QDIP75).

Fig. 3.2 The schematic diagram of devices (a) A, the standard device without edge thinning structure, (b) B, the device with edge

thinning structure at top contact layer, (c) C, the device with edge thinning structure at quantum dot layer.

(a)

Device A

(b)

Device B

(c)

Device C

Edge Thinning Edge Thinning

3.1.2 Results and Discussion

Figs. 3.3 to 3.5 show the I-V characteristics of devices A (without edge thinning

structure), B (with edge thinning structure at top contact) and C (with edge thinning

structure at quantum dot layer), respectively. The background limited performance

(BLIP) of all devices can be reckoned as 70 K. Fig 3.6 (a) and (b) show the

comparison of dark I-V characteristics of devices A, B, and C at 20 K and 90 K

respectively. At 20 K, the dark current of devices B and C are very similar. The dark

current of both devices B and C are about two orders of magnitude lower than that of

device A at bias voltage from about -0.8V to -1.3V. It’s because of the natural

discrepancy in the sample. At bias voltage beyond 1.6V and below -1.5V, the dark

current of devices B and C exceed that of device A. It’s because the cross section area

of bottom contact and the surface area of devices B and C is larger than that of device

A so the dark current could be larger. At 90 K, the dark current characteristics of

devices A, B and C are similar also.

In summary, the adopted edge thinning structure doesn’t have significant effect on

the dark I-V characteristics of QDIPs in this experiment.

42

-2 -1 0 1 2

10

^-14

10

^-12

10

^-10

10

^-8

10

^-6

10

^-4

10

^-2

10

⁰

C u rren t (A )

Voltage (V)

Device A Photo 20 K 70 K 100 K 130 K

Fig. 3.3 The I-V characteristic of device A.

-2 -1 0 1 2 10

^-14

10

^-12

10

^-10

10

^-8

10

^-6

10

^-4

10

^-2

10

⁰

C u rren t (A )

Voltage (V)

Device B Photo 20K 70K 100K 130K

Fig. 3.4 The I-V characteristic of device B.

44

-2 -1 0 1 2

10

^-14

10

^-12

10

^-10

10

^-8

10

^-6

10

^-4

10

^-2

10

⁰

C u rren t (A )

Voltage (V)

Device C Photo 20K 70K 100K 130K

Fig. 3.5 The I-V characteristic of device C.

-2 -1 0 1 2

Fig. 3.6 The comparison of dark I-V characteristics of devices A,

B , and C at T= (a) 20 K and (b) 90 K.

46

3.2 The Effect of Edge Thinning Structure with Different Depths on photo-response of QDIPs

3.2.1 Sample Preparation

The devices A, B, and C investigated in this section are the same as those in

section 3.1. The schematic diagram of sample structure and device structure are

shown in Fig 3.1 and Fig 3.2 respectively.

3.2.2 Results and Discussion

Figs. 3.7 to 3.9 show the photo-response of devices A, B and C, respectively. The

operation temperature of device A is 120 K. On the other hand, the operation

temperature of devices B and C are both 125 K. The operation temperature of devices

A, B and C are close. In this experiment, the adopted edge thinning structure doesn’t

enhance the operation temperature of QDIPs.

3 4 5 6 7 8

(the highest operation temperature) at different biases.

48

(the highest operation temperature) at different biases.

3 4 5 6 7 8

(the highest operation temperature) at different biases.

50

Chapter 4 The Combination of Edge Thinning Structure and Surface

Passivation Layer on the Performance of QDIPs

The combination of edge thinning structure and surface passivation by atomic

layer deposition on the the performance of QDIPs is investigated in this chapter. Lai

et al. [12] has discovered that surface passivation by atomic layer deposition of Al2O3

can also effectively reduce surface leakage current and elevate operation temperature.

Therefore, the combination of edge thinning structure and surface passivation is

adopted in this chapter to block the surface leakage current of QDIPs and achieve

higher operation temperature.

4.1 Sample Preparation

The sample investigated in this chapter is QDIP75. The schematic device

structure of device D, the standard device with surface passivation layer Al2O3, device

E, with edge thinning at top contact layer and surface passivation layer Al2O3, and

device F, with edge thinning at quantum dot layer and surface passivation layer Al2O3

are shown in Fig. 4.1 (a) and (b), respectively. The fabrication process of the device is

shown in Fig. 4.2 After the edge thinning structure formation as indicated in Fig. 2.5

(a)~(h), the samples were dipped into diluted HF (1%) solution for 1 minute and

followed by diluted NH4OH (10%) solution for 1minute. The HF treatment can

remove the native oxide and the NH4OH treatment can leave the surface-OH

terminated which may ensure better quality of Al2O3 layer. Then the samples were

immediately transferred to an ALD reactor for Al2O3 deposition.10nm of Al2O3

dielectric material deposited by Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) at 300^o C was used

to coat the mesa edges surrounding the QDIP. Then the RTA process was used to

eliminate the fixed oxide charges at the surface between QDIP and Al2O3 layer. The

annealing rate is 200 ^oC/min up to the temperature of 550 ^oC and last for 5 minutes.

Then the third photolithography step was used to define the region for ohmic contact.

After the third photolithography step, 20 minutes hard baking was used to formalize

the pattern. Then wet etching using of dilute HF (HF:H2O=1:50) to remove the spare

52

Al2O3 which was deposited on the ohmic contact region. The etching time is about 90

seconds. After wet etching process, the Au-Ge-Ni/Au alloy was deposited by thermal

evaporation and followed by thermal annealing at 420^o C for 2 minutes to form ohmic

contacts. Finally, the device with edge thinning structure and surface passivation layer

Al2O3 are completed.

(a) (b) (c) Device D Device E Device F Fig. 4.1 The schematic structure of devices (a) D, the standard device with surface passivation by ALD Al

2

O

3,

(b) E, the device with edge thinning structure at top contact layer and surface passivation by ALD Al

2

O

3

, (c) F, the device with edge thinning structure at quantum dot layer and surface passivation by ALD Al

2

O

3

.

Surface Passivation Edge Thinining

Fig. 4.2 The fabrication processes of devices with edge thinning

structure and surface passivation layer, (a) edge thinning structure

formation (as Fig. 2.5 (a)-(h) show), (b) dip in HF / NH

4

OH, (c) surface

passivaiton layer Al

2

O

3

by ALD, (d) RTA, (e) photoresist coating,

(f) developing, (g) wet etching Al

2

O

3

by diluted HF, (h) metals

evaporation, (i) lift off.

54

4.2 Results and Discussion

Figs. 4.3 to 4.5 show the I-V characteristics of devices D, E, and F, respectively.

The background limited performance (BLIP) of all devices can be reckoned as 70 K.

Fig. 4.6 (a) and (b) display the comparison of dark I-V characteristics of devices

A and D at 20 K and 90 K, respectively. The dark I-V characteristics of devices A and

D are similar. Fig. 4.7 (a) and (b) display the comparison of dark I-V characteristics of

devices B and E at 20 K and 90 K, respectively. At 20 K, the dark current of device E

is 1 order of magnitude lower than that of device B at bias voltage beyond 1.5V and

below -1.5V. At 90 K, the dark current of device E is 1 order of magnitude lower than

that of device B at bias voltage beyond 1.2V and below -1.0V. Fig. 4.8 (a) and (b)

display the comparison of dark I-V characteristics of devices C and F at 20 K and

90 K, respectively. At 20 K, the dark current of device F is 2 orders of magnitude

lower than that of device C at bias voltage beyond 1.0V and below -1.0V. At 90 K, the

dark current of device F is 2 orders of magnitude lower than that of device C at bias

voltage beyond 0.5V and below -0.5V.

Fig. 4.9 (a) and (b) display the comparison of dark I-V characteristics of devices

D, E and F at 20 K and 90 K, respectively. At 20 K, the dark current of device F and

device E are 2 orders and 1 order of magnitude lower than that of device D ,

respectively at bias voltage beyond 1.0V and below -1.0V. At 90 K, the dark current

of device F is 1 order of magnitude lower than that of device D at bias voltage beyond

0.5V and below -0.5V and the dark current characteristics of devices E and D are

similar.

According to the comparison of dark I-V characteristics, it can be inferred that

the dark current reduction effect of surface passivation layer Al2O3 combined with

edge thinning structure is better than that of surface passivation layer Al2O3 only.

The surface passivation layer Al2O3 combined with edge thinning structure at

quantum dot layer can reduce dark current by 2 orders of magnitude, which is the

optimum improvement in this experiment.

Fig. 4.10 (a), (b) and (c) display the comparison of photo I-V characteristics of

devices A and D, B and E, and C and F, respectively. The photo I-V characteristics of

devices A and D are similar. The photo current of device E is 1 order of magnitude

lower than that of device B at bias voltage beyond 1.5V and below -1.5V. The photo

current of device F is 2orders of magnitude lower than that of device C at bias voltage

beyond 1.0V and below -1.0V.

Despite the combination of edge thinning structure and surface passivation layer

Al2O3 can reduce dark current by 1~2 orders of magnitude, the photo current is also

reduced simultaneously.

56

-2 -1 0 1 2

10

^-14

10

^-12

10

^-10

10

^-8

10

^-6

10

^-4

10

^-2

10

⁰

C u rren t (A )

Voltage (V)

Device D Photo 20 K 70 K 100 K 130 K

Fig. 4.3 The I-V characteristic of device D.

-2 -1 0 1 2 10

^-14

10

^-12

10

^-10

10

^-8

10

^-6

10

^-4

10

^-2

10

⁰

C u rren t (A )

Voltage (V)

Device E Photo 20K 70K 100K 130K

Fig. 4.4 The I-V characteristic of device E.

58

-2 -1 0 1 2

10

^-15

10

^-13

10

^-11

10

^-9

10

^-7

10

^-5

10

^-3

10

^-1

C u rren t (A )

Voltage (V)

Device F Photo 20K 70K 100K 130K

Fig. 4.5 The I-V characteristic of device F.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4.6 The comparison of dark I-V characteristics of devices A

and D at T= (a) 20 K and (b) 90 K.

60

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4.7 The comparison of dark I-V characteristics of devices B

and E at T= (a) 20 K and (b) 90 K.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4.8 The comparison of dark I-V characteristics of devices C

and F at T= (a) 20 K and (b) 90 K.

62

-2 -1 0 1 2

Fig. 4.10 The comparison of photo I-V characteristics of devices (a) A

(a)

(b)

(c)

64

Figs. 4.11 to 4.13 (a) and (b) display the responsivities of devices D, E and F at

20 K and the highest operation temperature, respectively. The operation temperature

of devices D, E and F are 130 K, 105 K and 135 K, respectively, which are all close to

that of device A, 120 K. It can be inferred that the combination of edge thinning

structure and surface passivation layer Al2O3 doesn’t significantly improve the

operation temperature of QDIPs in this experiment.

On the other hand, at 20 K, Device F can work at broader bias voltage range

(-2.6V~2.6V) than Device A does (-0.8V~1.8V). It’s because the current at higher

bias voltage is reduced by the combination of edge thinning structure at QD layer and

surface passivation layer Al2O3.

Fig. 4.14 (a) and (b) display the detectivities of devices A and F at bias voltage =

0.6V and 1.6V, respectively. In both bias voltages, the detectivities of devices A and F

are close to each other. It can be inferred that the combination of edge thinning

structure and surface passivation layer Al2O3 doesn’t significantly improve the

detectivity of QDIPs in this experiment.

3 4 5 6 7 8

66

(the highest operation temperature) at different biases.

3 4 5 6 7 8

(the highest operation temperature) at different biases.

68

Fig. 4.14 The comparison of detectivities of devices A and F at bias

voltage = (a) 0.6 volt and (b) 1.6 volt.

Chapter 5 Conclusions

The QDIPs with edge thinning structure and combination of edge thinning

structure and surface passivation layer is investigated in this thesis respectively.

In chapter 3, the edge thinning structure with different depths on QDIPs is

investigated. The edge thinning structure with width of 10 μm and thickness of

100~200 nm is adopted on n-i-n InAs/GaAs QDIPs at top contact layer and quantum

dot layer respectively. It is found that edge thinning structure doesn’t successfully

reduce the dark current and enhance the operation temperature of QDIPs in this

experiment.

In chapter 4, the combination of edge thinning structure with different depths and

surface passivaiton layer Al2O3 with thickness of 10 nm is investigated. The

combination of edge thinning structure and surface passivation layer Al2O3 doesn’t

successfully enhance the operation temperature of QDIPs in this experiment. However,

the combination of edge thinning structure at quantum dot layer and surface

passsivation layer Al2O3 can reduce the current so that the device can work at higher

bias voltage.

In this thesis, edge thinning structure and the edge thinning structure combined

with surface passivation layer Al2O3 don’t enhance the operation temperature of

70

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在文檔中 利用邊緣減薄結構提升量子點紅外光偵測器操作溫度之研究 (頁 39-0)